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I Publications of the ^ 

Florida State Historical Society 




Number One 



Deland, Florida: 
Printed for the Sustaining Members of the Society 

1922 



Fa Ob 



TlO. 






PREFACE 

The Committee on Publications of the Florida State His- 
torical Society considers it an auspicious circumstance that it 
has secured for the first volume of the publications so valuable 
and comprehensive an essay on the aboriginal inhabitants of 
Florida as the one It now has the pleasure of offering to the Sus- 
taining Members. Historians are giving more and more atten- 
tion to the study of aboriginal peoples, just as archaeologists 
and ethnologists are giving more and more attention to the 
study of history. So much of Florida history is Interwoven with 
the story of its Indian inhabitants that it is Impossible to sep- 
arate one from the other. This will become increasingly appar- 
ent as the early Spanish documents are published. We are, 
therefore, very happy to initiate our series by printing this study, 
"the object of which is to bring to date our knowledge of the 
peopling and peoples of Florida. " 

This monograph was prepared by Dr. Ales Hrdllcka of the 
Smithsonian Institution. While a member of the Committee on 
Publications was visiting Dr. Hrdllcka in regard to another 
matter, the purposes and plan of the Florida State Historical 
Society were discussed. Toward the close of the interview Dr. 
Hrdllcka told of the monograph which he was just completing. 
He expressed regret that it would be several years before it 
would see the light, because of the many monographs taking 
precedence over his, which were already filed with the Institution 
awaiting publication. Negotiations were at once opened, as the 
result of which the permission of the officers of the Smithsonian 
Institution and Bureau of American Ethnology, was given for 
this monograph to be published by our Society. For this permis- 
sion we are very grateful. 



We share the author's hope that the book may stimulate inter- 
est in the aboriginal remains of Florida, and that that interest, 
translated into action, may soon cause additional researches to 
be made. 

John B. Stetson, Jr. 

J. Franklin Jameson f Committee on Publications. 

Jeannette Ihurber Connor f 
George Parker Winship 

Deland, 
Florida, 
June 1, 1922. 



Publications of the Florida State Historical Society 



THE ANTHROPOLOGY 
OF FLORIDA 



BY 

ALES HRDLICKA 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
WASHINGTON, D. C. 



DELAND • FLORIDA 

The Florida State Historical Society 
1922 



Lj,.::i:a sit. 



dedicated to the memory of 
Professor Frederick W. Putnam 



Anthropology 

OF 

FLORIDA 



ANTHROPOLOGY OF FLORIDA 

CONTENTS 

I 

INDIAN REMAINS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 

PAGE 

The Ten Thousand Islands Region 5 

Indian Remains from Fort Myers to Key Marco. . . 16 

Punta Rasa 16 

Estero Keys 16 

Naples 19 

Gordon Pass 20 

Weeks Place 20 

Key Marco 21 

Caximbas 22 

Horr's Island 22 

Goodland Point 24 

Cape Romaine 24 

Addison's Place 24 

Key Marco Southward 27 

Whitney River 29 

Buttonwood Key 31 

Shell Key 31 

Dismal Key 31 

Pumpkin Key 32 

Gomez Key 33 

Fakahatchee, Thompson Place, Ellis Place 33 

Ferguson River 34 

Aliens River 34 

Chokaloskee Island 35 

Turner's River 36 

Barnes River 40 

New River 41 

Chatham Bend 41 

Miller's Point 41 

Chevalier Place 42 

Gopher Key 42 

Lossman's River and Key 44 

Royal Palm Hammock 45 



FACE 

Lossman's River to the Southern Extremity of the 

Peninsula 47 

General Impressions 48 

Fort Myers to Lake Okechobee and East Coast.... 52 

The Seminoles 53 

II 

anthropology of FLORIDA 

Peopling and Tribes of Florida 57 

Numbers, Antiquity 65 

Physical Characteristics of the Floridians in Records 70 

Physical Anthropology, Former Contributions 71 

III 

NEW observations 

Deformation 83 

Massiveness 85 

Disease 87 

Unity of Type 88 

The Skull 89 

Descriptive Features 90 

Measurements 91 

Facial Proportions 99 

Comparative 109 

The Long Bones 117 

Stature 118 

The Humerus 118 

Radius 122 

Femur 123 

Tibia 127 

Summary 130 

Detailed Measurements 133 

Index 145 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATE PAGE 

Map, Caloosahatchee River to Key 

Marco 17 

Map, The Ten Thousand Islands 

Region 18 

/; Jungle Near the Sand Mound, Horr's 

Island Faces page 25 

//.• Seminole Hut, Allen's River " 34 

///; Shell Heaps on Chokaloskee Island. " 35 

IF: Shell Heaps on Brown's Place, 

Turner's River " 37 

V: Seminoles at Chevalier Place " 43 

VI: Mangrove Jungle on Way to Gopher's 

Key " 45 ' 

VII: Seminoles near Chevalier Place " 55" 

VIII: Seminoles, on Allen River Follows pi. VII 

IX: (Frontispiece to Face Part II). Dis- 
tribution OF THE Rounded and 
Oblong Headed Types in Florida.. . Faces page 57 
X: Front View of a Male and a Female 

"Round Head" from Florida " 91 

XI: Side View of Skulls Shown in Plates 

X AND XI Follows pi. X 

XII: Top View of Skulls Shown in Plate X " XI 

XIII: Side View of a Male and of a Female 

Florida Skull of the Rounded Type Faces page 93 
XIV: A Male and a Female "Round Head" 

FROM St. John's River Mounds Follows pi. XIII 

XV: Florida Crania— the Rounded Con- 
trasted with the Oblong Type.... " XIV 
XVI: Side View of a Female Florida Skull 

of Intermediary Form " XV 

XVII-XVIII: Extraordinary Lower Jaws from the 

Florida Mounds Faces page 95 

Figure 1 — Shell Heaps and Mounds on Brown's 

Place, Turner's River 38 

Figure 2 — Map of Florida Showing Localities from 

which Skeletal Material was Examined 84 

Figure 3a — Cephalic Index of Crania from Florida 

Mounds and Shell Heaps Follows page 98 

Figure 3b — Cephalic Index of Crania from Florida 

Mounds and Shell Heaps, condensed... " fig. 3a 



Figure 4 — Mean Height Index of Florida Skulls. . Follows page 100 

Figure 5 — Upper Facial and Nasal Index of Florida 

Skulls " 104 

Figure 6 — Comparison Graphs of Floridian Brachy- 
CEPHALic Crania with Skulls in Neigh- 
boring States " 114 ^ 

Figure 7 — Comparative Graphs of Oblong Florida 

Crania with Those of Seminoles " 114 i/ 



ANTHROPOLOGY OF FLORIDA 
FOREWORD 

When at the end of October, 1918, shortly after the death 
of my wife. Professor W. H. Holmes and Dr. J. W. Fewkes, 
through the Bureau of American Ethnology, offered me the 
facilities for a brief trip of exploration, I chose one of the least 
known regions in the States, namely, the southwestern extremity 
of Florida. I have been in Florida on anthropological quests 
on three other occasions, reaching on the west coast as far south 
as Fort Myers; this time I wanted to penetrate as far south 
as there might be traces of the former aboriginal population, 
to get a rapid bird's-eye view of conditions, to collect what- 
ever skeletal material I might be able to find, and to see as 
many as possible of the Seminoles who are known to roam 
through that territory. I was aware, of course, of the work of 
Mr. Clarence B. Moore, as well as of that of Hamilton Gushing, 
along that coast; but for purposes of physical anthropology 
that was not enough, and I felt a strong need of a personal 
visit to these regions. 

The trip proved interesting, though also difficult, beyond 
all expectation. The region contains a wealth of archeological 
remains which would long since have created quite a stir if 
located in a more accessible part of the country. It also con- 
tains burials, probably many burials, of the old population; 
but it soon appeared that nothing of these skeletal remains has 
been saved by any one of the few local settlers, and that nothing 
could be excavated on the trip, due to unpropitious season with 
swarms of insects and a complete lack of help. Of the Semi- 
noles a fewonly were met; to seek the rest was out of the question. 



The results of the journey as marked on the spot are given 
in the following pages, with the hope that they may supple- 
ment and advance Mr. Moore's work and reports. The physical 
anthropology of this part of the peninsula, together with that of 
the southeastern coast, must remain, in the main, for future 
determination. 

The second part of this memoir will be devoted to a study of 
the Florida natives from the rest of the peninsula.* Due to 
their geographical position and other facts, this study has long 
been felt to be desirable, but it was only in the last few years 
that enough skeletal material was obtained both from Florida 
and from neighboring States to make possible some valid gen- 
eral deductions. We owe this again, it may be acknowledged 
with pleasure, mainly to Mr. Clarence B. Moore's painstaking 
explorations in Georgia, Arkansas and Louisiana, as well as 
Florida. 

The results of the studies here dealt with, together with 
those on tribes further north and west, lead to a strong hope 
that if these researches can be properly extended, particularly 
to the Northwest and to Mexico, we may before long be able 
fairly to master the intricate subject of the types and relations 
of the North-American Indians. 



• The completion of this study, also, has been made possible by a small grant from the 
Bureau of American Ethnology, to which the author hereby gratefully acknowledges his 
indebtedness. 



I 

NOTES ON THE INDIAN REMAINS OF THE 
SOUTHWESTERN COAST OF FLORIDA 

THE Ten Thousand Islands Region. — Of the few as yet 
but very imperfectly explored regions in the United 
States, the largest perhaps is the southernmost part 
of Florida below the 26th degree of northern latitude. 
This is particularly true of the central and western portions 
of this region, which inland are an unmapped wilderness 
of everglades and cypress swamps, and ofF-shore a maze of 
low mangrove "keys" or islands, mostly unnamed and un- 
charted, with channels, "rivers" and "bays" about them which 
are known only to a few of the trappers and hunters who have 
lived a larger part of their life in that region. The islands are 
literally numbered by the thousands, and range in size from a 
little oyster bar with perhaps a single little mangrove, to those 
v/hich measure several square miles of surface. They are 
invariably thickly wooded by the almost impenetrable, many- 
rooted, tough mangrove brush or trees, a jungle-like vegetation 
which constitutes one of the greatest obstacles to exploration. 
All these islands, moreover, are so low that they are practically 
nothing but muck and swamp with parts covered with water 
at high tide and the whole surface submerged when western 
storms drive in the Gulf sea. They are uninhabited and 
uninhabitable by man except where the gulf, winds, or human 
hands had built some "high ground," on which the Indians 
and now the whites with some degree of safety erect their 
habitations. 



Ales Hrdlicka 



In addition to the swampy and jungly nature of these islands, 
which is such that except on the "high ground" it is impossible 
to find a place for a camp and in most places even for the cook- 
ing of a meal, these patches together with the neighboring 
mainland are more or less infested with snakes and the larger 
part of the year also with great quantities of mosquitoes, sand- 
flies, and "red bugs," which make life and frequently even a 
short stay on them a matter of torture and even danger. Under 
such circumstances anything like a detailed, protracted explora- 
tion is not merely exceptionally difficult but frequently quite 
impossible. 

On such maps as we have of this region, the innumerable 
mangrove "keys" are known by the well fitting term of the 
"Ten Thousand Islands." The waters that surround them are 
full of submerged oyster bars, and frequently so shallow that 
only the lightest draft launches or skiffs can penetrate; while 
distances with directions are merely a matter of individual 
estimates or approximations by the hunters and trappers of the 
region. As one nears the mainland, some of the more impor- 
tant waterways begin to be called "rivers" and "bays"; and if 
the former are followed one actually enters sooner or later fresh- 
water rivers, which run, gradually petering out, for from a few 
to a dozen or more miles inland, draining the low Everglades. 

Due to the above-named conditions the whole region of the 
"Ten Thousand Islands" is but very sparsely peopled and with 
the exception of a few store and hotel keepers (the latter essen- 
tially for the accommodation of the occasional visiting sports- 
men), it is inhabited only by a scattering of fishermen, most of 
whom also hunt and trap on occasion. From Chocaloskee 
Island down to the southernmost point of Cape Sable, a dis- 
tance along the shore of over fifty miles, the actual settlers were 
found to consist of only five or six families. 



Anthropology of Florida 



From the archeological point of view, the region of the 
"Ten Thousand Islands", together with the adjacent coast, 
first became known through the work of Frank Hamilton 
Gushing in 1895-97.' Subsequently this region, as practically 
all other parts of the west coast of Florida, was visited on sev- 
eral occasions by Mr. Clarence B. Moore. These visits, as 
all of Mr. Moore's work, were also of archeological nature, and 
resulted in the collection of numerous interesting cultural 
specimens which are described and illustrated in Vols. XI and 
XIII of the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, 
and deposited in the collections of the Academy, 

Mr. Moore's observations, as far as they extend, are just, 
and except so far as they apply to descriptions of specimens, 
deserve to be quoted in full. They are as follows i** 

"The Ten Thousand Islands, whose name is not conferred 
in a poetical way, but probably falls short in describing the 
number, beginning with Little Marco Island on the north, 
thickly fringe the coast line of part of the counties of Lee and 
Monroe to the Northwest Cape, a distance of about seventy 
miles in a straight line. 

"These keys, formed by oyster bars, sand and the roots of 
the mangrove tree, are from a few feet to a number of miles in 
area, and are, as a rule, just above the level of the sea. But 
an insignificant proportion of these islands have been utilized 
by the Key-dwellers. 

"All published maps of this part of Florida are grossly 
inaccurate. . . . 

"On the eastern side of Little Marco Island is a shell settle- 
ment with the usual ridges and mounds of moderate size. 



' Exploration of Ancient Key-dweller Remains in the Gulf Coast of Florida. Proc. Amer. 
Philos. Soc, 1897, xxxv, 120 pp. 

'' Certain Antiquities of the Florida West Coast, f. Ac. Sc, Philadelphia, 1900, xi, 369 
et seq. 



8 Ales Hrdlicka 



"Marco, on the northernmost end of Key Marco, by far the 
most important of the Ten Thousand Islands, is where Mr. 
Gushing made his marvellous collection of objects of wood and 
of shell in the muck at the bottom of a small triangular court 
enclosed between ridges of shell. . . . 

"Blue Hill, on Horr's Island, about one mile southwest from 
Goodland Point, has a considerable aboriginal shell deposit, 
and a sand mound about 6 feet in height, which has been thor- 
oughly dug through. 

"Caximbas Hill is a wind formation on the southwestern 
part of Marco Island. Nearby is a considerable shell deposit. 

"Proceeding in a southerly direction among the Ten Thou- 
sand Islands, we visited Gomez' Old Place on a small nameless 
key reached from the Gulf through a pass about two miles east 
of Coon Key, and continuing in about one mile in a northerly 
direction. The key at present writing (1900) is uninhabited. 
It covers probably about thirty acres of interesting shell deposit, 
partly surrounding a basin that fills with the rising tide. 

"Dismal Key, Lee County, lies about two miles north of 
Horse Key, an outside island about five miles E. S. E. from Coon 
Key Pass, which is the southern entrance to Marco. This 
unsurveyed key has a great shell deposit with the usual mounds 
and the like. 

"Fikahatchee Key, Lee County, unsurveyed, perhaps 150 
acres in extent, can be reached by an inland passage at high 
tide, or from the Gulf through a nameless pass and continuing 
in among the islands for from three to four miles. In any event, 
a pilot is requisite. On this island is an extensive shell deposit. 
A family living on the key occupies a house partly built upon 
piles. 



Anthropology of Florida 



"Russell's Key may be reached from the Gulf by entering 
the islands about three miles above Sandfly Pass and continu- 
ing in among the keys another three miles. This key, which 
has large aboriginal shell deposits, perhaps 60 acres in extent, 
is occupied by Mr. J. W. Russell and Mr. M. M. Gaston with 
their families. 

"Wiggins' Key on Sandfly Pass, about one mile from the 
Gulf, on the right-hand side going out, has extensive shell 
deposits and two small burial mounds of sand and shell which 
have been much dug into. Our excavations, made with per- 
mission of Mr. J. Wiggins, the owner, were unrewarded. 

"This place is shown on maps as in the northern limits of 
the County of Monroe, but at the present time this territory, 
extending south below Chokoloskee Key, is claimed by Lee 
County, and, it is said, probably will be obtained by it. 

"Chokoloskee Key, Monroe County. This island lies in the 
lower part of Chokoloskee Bay, a sheet of water back of the 
maze of islands bordering the Gulf. 

"The island is unsurveyed. It is roughly circular and is said 
to be somewhat over one-half mile in diameter. It is almost 
entirely covered with great shell deposits, including lofty 
peaks, graded ways, canals and the like. Rising from the mangrove 
swamp at the edge of the northern part of the island is a mound 
of shell of abrupt ascent, a fraction over 27 feet in height, if 
measured from the level of low water. Running in from the 
southern section of the island are two graded ways enclosing 
a canal. These ways terminate in mounds facing each other. The 
easternmost mound, slightly the higher, on its western side 
where it rises from the canal, has a slope of thirty-three degrees. 
Its height above the level of the bottom of the canal is 18 feet 
4 inches and 22 feet 4 inches above low water level. . . . 



10 Ales Hrdlicka 



"Near the mouth of Turner's River, which enters Choko- 
loskee Bay in an easterly direction from the key and not far from 
it, is a considerable shell deposit. . . . 

"Watson's, Monroe County. About four miles up Chatham 
River is a series of shell fields owned by Mr. Watson, who resides 
on the place." 

To which, in 1905,' Mr. Moore adds the following: 

"This season (1904), beginning at Charlotte Harbor, we con- 
tinued southward through Pine Island Sound, Estero Bay and 
along the Gulf coast to the island of Marco next to the northern- 
most key of the Ten Thousand Islands. From Key Marco 
our course lay through the keys including Chokoloskee Key 
and Lossman's Key, and along the coast to Cape Sable, the 
southern boundary of the Ten Thousand Islands. 

"Rounding Cape Sable and visiting points of interest on the 
mainland and investigating various keys, we continued eastward, 
then northward, to Miami; to Fort Lauderdale on New River, 
where the Everglades were visited; and finally to Lake Worth, 
which was the southern limit of our work during the season 
of 1896. 

"As a result of this part of our journey of the season of 
1904, we formed certain conclusions, and fortified others which 
we had previously expressed in print, namely: 

"(1) That while the shell deposits of the southwestern coast 
of Florida are of great interest as monuments of the aborigines, 
their contents offer little reward to the investigator. 

"(2) That the sand mounds of the southern Florida coast 
were built mainly for domiciliary purposes, and that such as 
contain burials yield but little pottery, whole vessels being 
practically absent. 



' Miscellaneous Investigations in Florida. J. Ac. Sc, Philadelphia, 1905-08, xiii, 303 et seq. 



Anthropology of Florida 11 

"(3) That these burial mounds contain but few artifacts of 
interest and that such artifacts as are met with in the smaller 
ones, and superficially in the larger ones, are often of European 
origin, marking a strong contrast with the mounds of the 
northwestern Florida coast and of St. John's River. 

"The Marco Key, where Gushing made his great collection, 
was revisited. The objects found by Gushing lay in muck 
which forms the bottom of a small artificial basin in the shell 
deposit, formerly connected by a short canal with the neigh- 
boring water. . . . Artificial harbors, basins and canals abound 
among such keys of the Ten Thousand Islands as were selected 
by the pile dwellers as places of residence. . . . 

"The interesting Ghokoloskee Key described in our previous 
report has been determined, by a recent survey, to be in Lee 
Gounty, and not in Monroe Gounty, as was formerly believed to 
be the case. ... 

"In one part of the key is an interesting artificial harbor 
which, no doubt, served as a shelter for canoes in aboriginal 
times. This harbor, protected from open water by an embank- 
ment of shell, save at a narrow entrance, was on property owned 
by Mr. McKinnery, who, controlling the water by the insertion 
of a sluice, dug many trenches in the muck, with the idea to 
pile this material above water level, and thus gain a rich area 
for cultivation. . . . 

"Lossman's Key, Monroe Gounty. After investigating a 
number of keys which yielded nothing of interest from an 
archeological point of view, Lossman's Key, one of the largest, 
if not the largest key of the Ten Thousand Islands, was visited. 
At the northern extremity are large, level causeways and plat- 
forms of shell, a thorough survey of which would be of interest. 



12 Ales Hrdlicka 



"South of Cape Sable and eastward among the keys and 
northward to Lake Worth, where our journey ended, we met with 
nothing of especial archeological interest. After leaving the Ten 
Thousand Islands, no shell keys were met with by us during 
an extended search, all islands being of sand or of limerock." 

And again in 1907:' 

"The Ten Thousand Islands which have been twice visited 
and twice written about by us were again the subject of our 
investigation during two seasons, the winter of 1906 and the 
winter of 1907. These islands fringe the coast of south- 
western Florida for about 80 miles along parts of the counties 
of Lee and Monroe, between the settlement known as Naples 
on the north and Cape Sable on the south. . . . 

"While at Marco we visited Little Marco; Mcllvaine's Key; 
Addison's Key; and the Crawford place, northward toward 
Naples — all noteworthy aboriginal shell deposits. . . . 

"Fikahatchee Key and Russell's Key, large shell islands, 
yielded specimens of aboriginal work. Chokoloskee Key was 
visited with good results. . . . 

"Lossman's Key, near Cape Sable, one of the largest keys 
of the Ten Thousand Islands, was again visited by us, and its 
two shell deposits — one more than ten acres in extent — were 
carefully examined. The larger deposit, rich in aboriginal im- 
plements, has been recently cleared of the hammock growth 
formerly upon it. While there we almost walked upon the 
wires of a loaded spring-gun set for deer or panther — one of 
the chances one takes in exploring this wild and lawless region." 

The rest of the paper is given to description of objects. 

A copy of the notes on the principal observations by the 
writer was sent to Mr. Moore soon after the writer's return from 



' Notes on the Ten Thousand Islands, Florida. J. 4c. Sc, Philadelphia, xiii, 458 et seq. 



Anthropology of Florida 13 

Florida, and a preliminary note on the trip was published in 
the popular "Smithsonian Explorations" for 1918. In 1919 
Mr. Moore visited once more a part of this coast, and in the 
last number of the American Anthropologist of that year (p. 
400 et seq.), referring to the above mentioned note, he states in 
the main as follows 

Our "hundred-foot steamer, carrying a power boat as a 
tender, with an average of eleven men to dig and to supervise, 
has spent much of five seasons in the Ten Thousand Islands, 
good parts of which were devoted to the region south of Key 
Marco, in one instance the expedition continuing around the 
end of the peninsula to Lake Worth on the eastern coast. 

"We have published the results of most of our investigations 
between Key Marco and Lossman's Key, the southernmost of 
the Ten Thousand Islands, including principal sites. Dismal Key, 
Fikahatchee Key, Russell's Key, Chokoloskee Key, Turner 
River and Lossman's Key. 

"We are not prepared to admit that the region of the coast 
south of Key Marco was supposed to be of no great account as far 
as aboriginal remains were concerned by anyone familiar with 
that region through personal investigation or through compre- 
hensive reading on the subject. Nor, on the other hand, is it 
our opinion that this region is more than a continuation of the 
great shell deposits farther north: The huge mound above 
Cedar Key; those at Cedar Key; the so-called Spanish mound, 
Crystal River; Indian Hill, on Tampa Bay; Josselyn Key; the 
Battey Place, now Pineland on Pine Island; Mound Island; 
Addison's Key; Goodland Point on Key Marco; and others, all 
of which we have carefully examined and nearly all described in 
print. The highest shell-mounds of the coast are north of Key 
Marco as is the best defined aboriginal canal. 



14 Ales Hrdlicka 



"Our own experience and that of others has convinced us 
that in the shell-heaps of the southwestern Florida coast, which 
extend southward from above Cedar Key, practically nothing of 
interest has been found that can begin to compensate one for 
the heavy outlay of time and money needed for their demolition. 
The great shell-mound on Bullfrog creek, ten miles southeast 
from Tampa, removed to furnish material for roads, was care- 
fully watched, it is said, while the work was going on, without 
any discovery of importance. An accurate survey of the shell 
site on Turner River might be of interest, but it is our belief 
that digging into the shell deposits hereafter will be more fre- 
quently suggested than done." 

So much for Mr. Moore's report. 

The writer's motives for a visit to this region were, as 
already mentioned, besides its character, a desire to satisfy 
himself as to the nature and promise from the point of physical 
anthropology of the numerous remains of Indian occupation along 
the coast from Charlotte Bay southward; to determine if possible 
the type of skeletal remains from Key Marco down to the tip 
of the peninsula, for purposes of comparison with those which 
on previous trips he saw or collected off the Caloosahatchee 
River and further northward along the coast; and finally a 
hope of finding some full-blood Seminoles, parties of whom 
were known to roam among the Ten Thousand Islands. An 
additional incentive for the visit to southern Florida was to 
visit the newly opened regions about Lake Okechobee, where 
many canals have been and are being constructed, to see if any 
discoveries had been made there which might possibly throw light 
on the nature and antiquity of the inhabitants of that territory. 

Due to special good fortune the whole trip was accom- 
plished within the time of four weeks, the main part of which 
was devoted to a journey of about 250 miles, with a small 



Anthropology of Florida 15 

launch and a skiff, through the islands from Key Marco south 
to Lossman's River. One of the most experienced and reliable 
guides of the region was secured in the person of "Uncle" James 
E, Cannon, of Marco; and a number of friendly, remarkably 
well-informed and reliable old settlers were found in the 
persons of Messrs. J. B. Ellis, George W. Storter, C. S. Small- 
wood and R. E. Hamilton, from whom valuable information 
was obtained, a service which is hereby gratefully acknowledged. 
The expedition was also favored by excellent weather; but the 
insects proved a most difficult proposition, and in many cases 
not only made a prolonged examination of the remains impossi- 
ble, but rendered also all exploratory digging out of question. 
It was often difficult, in fact, to secure even a general view of the 
remains and to make a few photographic exposures. Due to 
these and other impediments, a good many of the less important 
sites and mounds that were learned of were not visited, and their 
location and character can only be recorded on the basis of the 
information obtained from the above-named settlers; but all 
groups that were regarded as of more than common interest or 
promise were reached and as far as possible examined. 

During these examinations much was seen that has not 
yet been recorded in print. Mr. Clarence B. Moore, who saw 
many of these sites before, in mentioning them did not go, as 
was seen, into many details. Yet there are details which 
seemed worth while recording even though very imperfectly, 
before the various remains will be more or less obliterated by 
man who even in these regions is advancing and destroying. 
Already some of the sites, such as that on the Chokaloskee 
Island, are badly damaged. 

To facilitate description the report on what was learned will 
best be divided into four portions, namely: (1) The Indian 
remains from Fort Myers to Key Marco; (2) The Indian re- 



16 Ales Hrdlicka 



mains from Key Marco to the southern extremity of the 
peninsula; (3) The Indian remains in the region from Fort 
Myers to Lake Okechobee, and from the latter to the east 
coast; and (4) The Seminole Indians. 

INDIAN REMAINS FROM FORT MYERS TO KEY MARCO 

As is well known, the islands lying south of Charlotte Har- 
bor and S. W. of the mouth of the Caloosahatchee, as well as 
some neighboring parts of the mainland, contain many Indian 
remains in the way of shell heaps, sand mounds, etc. They 
have also yielded considerable skeletal material, only a small 
part of which was, however, preserved. The main of these have 
been at least partly explored and reported upon (Gushing,' 
Clarence B. Moore,'' Hrdlicka'). For some distance south of 
the mouth of the Caloosahatchee River such remains become 
scarcer and less well known. Commencing at the Punta Rasa 
and southward they may, so far as present information goes, be 
briefly enumerated as follows: 

Punta Rasa: According to the Captains Kinzie of Fort 
Myers, there is a good-sized sand mound with burials in the 
swamps inland from Punta Rasa. Mr. C. B. Moore, to whom 
the writer mentioned this mound, wrote that he knew of it, 
and that some of the burials which it contained were accom- 
panied by beads of white man's manufacture. None of the 
skeletal remains have, so far as could be learned, been preserved. 

Estero Keys: West of Estero (10 miles S. of Fort Myers,) 
there is a shallow, wide-mouthed bay with a series of keys and 
islands, some of which contain Indian remains. The most 
important of these is the "Mound Key," with extensive shell 



•o. c. 

»0. c. 

" Bulls. 33 and 66, Bureau American Ethnology. 




Bonita Springs 



Wiff^ine P<iss 



SAND 

Omound 



Clam. Pass 







r Place 
little MarcoPas^^J<S'i^o\j u o 




Marco P<. 



Addi8onsPlax;e 



Immokalee 



r^aIr»nQaKafrhpp Rivpr Tn Kpv IVTarro 




Bay ^^ 

gft Cape Romano ® '"^ 






o 



^ 



>^ 







Pavilion "— ■^-P 



I KeyOci' 



Hamilton Pla'cei 



ori Key 

.1TE 



Porpoise Pr arS.a^^^ammocV 



SITE 




^ 






X 



N.w Cape' 



Middle Cape 




Cast Cape 



The Ten Thousand Islands Region 



Anthropology of Florida 19 

heaps and mounds which were partly touched upon by Gushing,* 
and later described more accurately though not exhaustively by 
Clarence B. Moore." 

It would seem that the remains of this little archipelago and 
particularly those of Mound Key deserve further attention. 
The region is easily approachable from Fort Myers or Estero. 
No skeletal material is as yet known from these islands. 

Fort Myers-Naples: More inland, the country here is, in 
general, very unproductive. It is covered with a thin pine 
forest, the grass is poor and the region could never have fur- 
nished the means of existence to any large Indian population. 
It shows accordingly but few marks of such occupation. These 
consist of two moderate sized sand mounds, in all probability 
containing burials, situated one about six miles south of Fort 
Myers and not far east of the road to Naples, at the head of 
Hender's Creek; while the other is to be found about six miles 
southeast of Bonita Springs (or about twenty-seven miles from 
Fort Myers). This latter mound lies to the east of the road to 
Naples, in the pine forest, and in one locality can be seen from 
the present road. 

Naples: About thirty-five miles in a straight line and nearly 
due south from Fort Myers is the little hamlet of Naples. 
Approximately four miles north of Naples, in the neighborhood 
of "Clam Pass," there are, according to information, shell-and- 
soil mounds or heaps, some reaching possibly 15 feet in height 
and the total covering upwards of 2 acres. To find them one 
would "go up the Pass and enter a little bay, on the north side 
of which the site may readily be seen." This information is 
rather uncertain, but there were no facilities to visit the 
location. 



«0. c. 

«0. c. 



20 Ales Hrdlicka 



A short distance to the S. E. of Naples exists an old canal 
which originally led from the "back bay" to the Gulf, and which 
may be a work of the Indians among whom canals facilitating 
canoe approach to their sites were greatly favored. Some low 
shell accumulations are said to be found near the Gulf extremity 
of the canal, the mouth of which is reported to be now about 
70 yards distant from the beach. 

Gordon Pass: To the southeast of Naples there is a fairly 
spacious shallow inland bay, to the west of which is placed by 
some the northern beginning of the "Ten Thousand Islands." 
A small sound about 4 miles south of Naples and communi- 
cating with the Gulf is known as the "Gordon Pass"; and 
almost opposite this Pass on the mainland to the east is a good- 
sized oblong sand mound, from which human bones and some 
"cement" have been dug up by local men. The mound is 
situated about half a mile inland, on the western side of a 
pond and not far from a "slew" which leads from the pond to 
a swamp located between it and the bay. This site was visited 
and our little party proceeded up to the "slew," which may 
possibly be another old Indian canal, but there our further 
progress was blocked by water which we were not able to pass. 

Tom Weeks' Place: About 7 miles southeast of Naples and 
on the "river" between Naples and Marco, is Crawford's Key, 
now better known as the "Tom Weeks' Place," and sometimes 
also called the "Shell Key." The site is mentioned by Mr. 
Moore as having been seen by him and containing "noteworthy 
aboriginal shell deposits" (p. 12). There is an old, abandoned 
house on this place with a dilapidated landing; and there are 
upwards of 4 acres of "high land," which on a visit proved to 
consist of six large, oblong heaps and mounds, with some addi- 
tional artificially made ground in the vicinity. The highest 
of the mounds is located near the middle of the small island, is 



Anthropology of Florida 21 

at least IS feet high, and covers probably half an acre of ground. 
All of these heaps are made up of shells, though they also con- 
tain more or less black soil (muck and sand). The surface of 
a part of the high ground has been affected by plowing, but 
there was no evidence of any excavation. The whole is plainly 
a village site, the shell heaps having served as elevated platforms 
for habitations; and it impresses one as rather sterile, so far as 
relics and skeletal remains are concerned, in which, however, it 
would be easy to be mistaken. 

Key Marco: A little over 12 miles S. E. of Naples is the 
large Key Marco, one of the best known points archeologically 
on the western Florida coast, thanks especially to Cushing's 
explorations. Mr. Moore mentions the Key (pp. 8-13) but 
does not seem to have made any special explorations there. 
On the site explored by Gushing, near the northeastern extremity 
of the Key, matters are very much as he left them, the main 
depression where he made his great finds forming now an unat- 
tractive and unimpressive pool filled with dark brown water. 
A casual examination of the ground in the vicinity indicates 
that a large part of this northwestern extremity of the island 
was, and to some extent still is covered by Indian shell heaps 
and accumulations. It was undoubtedly an important and 
extensive Indian site, though as learned later on by no means 
the most important of the western coast, except for Cushing's 
discoveries. It had been so affected by removal of shell and 
the activities of the adjoining settlement that little of value 
could now be said about it. Indian remains on the Marco 
Key are, however, not limited to the point just mentioned and 
which would seem to deserve the name of "Cushing's Point." 
The term "pile-dwellers" applied by Cushing to the aboriginal 
inhabitants of this point seems unmerited. Cushing's impor- 
tant collection of skulls of this place could so far, regrettably. 



22 Ales Hrdlicka 



not be located. (Ultimate inquiries make it probable that there 
were but a few specimens). 

Caximbas: Five miles southwest of Marco is the settlement 
of Caximbas. Mr. Moore refers briefly to this site; the place 
is now owned by Mr. J. M. Barfield. There are on the property 
approximately 20 acres of ground made by the Indians, and 
Mr. Barfield kindly conveyed the writer over this ground. 
This has been considerably affected by cultivation, but it is 
evident that it was an extensive and important Indian settle- 
ment. Much of the land seems to have been made for the 
purposes of agriculture, while other parts served as platforms 
for habitations. There are several trough-like depressions 
leading from between the heaps in the direction of the water 
outside the key; they served in all probability for approach by 
canoes. The land is sand mixed with muck and contains many 
conch, clam and oyster shells. Many of the conchs show the 
characteristic hole made by the Indians and some a double 
hole for hefting. Fragments of undecorated pottery are com- 
mon. No burial place, or any extraordinary objects such as 
those found by Gushing further north, have as yet come to light 
at Caximbas. 

Further inland there are large shell deposits which are 
doubtless also of Indian origin. Finally near the shore there is 
a high and long sand ridge, the Caximba "hill," a unique occur- 
rence in the Ten Thousand Islands and an excellent site for 
Mr. Barfield's hotel; the indications are that it is a sand dune 
the formation of which was favored by a peculiar exposure 
towards the Gulf. 

Horrs Island: Opposite Caximbas on the south and across 
a moderately wide sound lies the as yet ill-mapped Horr's 
Island, so named after Captain J. F. Horr, who very kindly 
conducted the writer to his place and showed him the Indian 



Anthropology of Florida 23 

remains that are found on the same. These consist of three 
shell and one sand mound. 

The first of the shell mounds is situated about 700 feet 
east by north from the house. It is bluntly conical, between 
4 and 5 feet high, but originally was somewhat higher — perhaps 
a little over 5 feet, and at the base is about 40 feet in diameter. 
It has not as yet been dug into. 

The second and largest of the three shell mounds is sit- 
uated about 300 feet farther in the same direction. It is some- 
what oblong, approximately 20 feet high and upwards of 80 
feet in maximum diameter. A great deal of shell has been 
removed from this mound for roads, and during this work 
various archeological objects were discovered, including two 
finely polished "banner stones," one of which was still in Cap- 
tain Horr's possession at the time of the writer's visit. They 
were unquestionably of much more northern origin. It is not 
known if any human bones were ever encountered in the mound, 
but if so they were inconspicuous. Several pieces of glass were, 
however, found among the shells, showing white man's contact. 

The third shell mound is located about half a mile (local 
estimate) east of the one just mentioned. It is conical, smaller 
than the big mound, and located on higher ground. Some 
shells were taken from the edge of it, but the work did not pene- 
trate very far and no finds are remembered. 

On the eastern end of Horr's Island, or about 2 miles from 
the present house and a short distance from where the old 
house stood, is a sand mound (see Mr. Moore's note, p. 8). 
The place is sometimes called "The Blue Hills," for which 
term, however, there seems to be little justification. It is 
possible that originally two sand mounds have existed in the 
locality; at present, however, there is but one, about 60 feet in 
diameter and perhaps 12 feet high, conical, but with the top 



24 Ales Hrdlicka 



cut off by some former excavation. The report is that these 
excavations had yielded human skulls and bones, and also 
some objects of white man's derivation. 

Goodland Point: A little over three miles S. E. from Caxim- 
bas, or 6}4 miles S. S. E. from Marco, other extensive Indian 
remains in the way of shell heaps, canals, and mounds with 
burials occur on the so-called Goodland Point, the whole 
covering many acres of ground. Not far from the house of the 
present inhabitants on the Point and between two large shell 
ridges there remains a short canal, doubtless partly or entirely 
of Indian making, which is usable to this day for small boats. 
This place was visited by Mr. Clarence B. Moore, who con- 
ducted here some excavations that yielded archeological speci- 
mens as well as human bones, but nothing of great importance. 
He barely mentions it (p. 13). It would seem to deserve a 
comprehensive survey. The amount of shell heaps and made 
ground is imposing. 

Cape Romaine: The large key which terminates in Cape 
Romaine, S. S. W. of Key Marco, has been unanimously re- 
ported to the writer as a low sandy beach, exposed to the storms 
of the Gulf and containing no Indian remains that had ever 
been noted. 

Addison s Place: One of the most extensive and interesting 
Indian shell deposits, which belongs to the Marco group and 
should, therefore, be described in this connection, is to be 
found on the so-called "Addison's Place," on MacIIvaine 
Creek, approximately 5 miles east from Cushing's Point at 
Marco (Mr. Moore's notes, p. 12, 13). The moderate sized key on 
which the place is located seems to be without a fixed name. It 
is farmed by the good Addison family, a typical west Florida 
coast group of hard-working parents with many robust children, 
notwithstanding the mosquitoes; and it was Mrs. Addison with 




< 

Oh 



Anthropology of Florida 25 

two of her girls who piloted the writer over the highly inter- 
esting and vast Indian formations which cover practically the 
whole island, which is about 30 acres in area. They consist of 
great shell ridges arranged in a row. This row runs roughly east 
and west (the ridges themselves pointing north and south), curving 
a little about the east end of the island. Between each two 
of the ridges is a large and deep trough which in all probability 
in the time of the Indians was a canal connecting with the 
water outside of the key; and in the midst of the large ridges 
not far from the house the troughs form a triangular "heart- 
like" depression not unlike a little central harbor or shelter. 
The huge ridges which are probably over 15 feet high with 
four times that breadth and many times that length, make 
a deep impression on the observer, and the whole of the remains 
on this key ought to be carefully mapped for archeological 
record, which would possibly be worth more than the results 
of excavations. Human burials have, as far as could be learned, 
not yet been located on this island. 

On a separate little key about a quarter of a mile further 
east, which also belongs to the Addisons who have there their 
grape fruit orchard, there are additional remarkable remains 
of handwork of the Indians. The area of the key in question is 
said to be about 3 acres. In its middle is a fresh water pond; 
and all around this, to near the outer limits of the key, is Indian 
made "high land" 3 to 6 feet high above high tide and built 
of sandy muck with some shell addition. From the pond 
a couple of "gulleys" lead in the direction of the outside water- 
course without now quite reaching it; they look very much as 
if they may have originally been channels of approach to the 
sheltered lagoon. All this is from a description by Mr. Addi- 
son, for due to conditions of the tide the little island could not 
be visited. 



26 Ales Hrdlicka 



Human bones and numerous "relics" have been found on 
the Addison Place, and the same was visited by Mr. Moore, 
but no explorations of it were as yet undertaken. The family 
themselves dug up a large part of one of the shell heaps for the 
purpose of making lime, but as could be anticipated discovered 
nothing striking in the way of human artifacts, and there were 
no bones. 

General Remarks: So much for the region from south of 
Fort Myers to Key Marco. It is seen to offer a number of 
points of decided interest to the archeologist and prospectively 
also to the anthropologist, in the extensive shell heaps and 
mounds on the Mound Key, Tom Weeks' Place, Cushing's 
Point (Marco), Caximbas, Goodland Point, and on the two 
keys belonging to Mr. Addison. The white sand mounds are 
said to stop a few miles south of Naples, but the only reason is 
that further south such sand would be very hard to obtain. 
The burial mound at "Blue Hills" on Horr's Island shows the 
same tendency and similar material. The place of the beach- 
sand mound is taken by the muck-sand-and-shell mounds, which 
occur as will be seen later on to the southern extremity of the 
peninsula. The shell heaps and shell mounds resemble closely 
some of those existing on the keys south of Charlotte Harbor 
and evidently belonged to people of the same culture. With 
the exception of Cushing's Point at Marco none of the remains 
have as yet received exhaustive survey or exploration, the 
main reason for which being that they yield generally rather 
poor returns for the work, in addition to which there is the 
damping influence of the frequent though possibly only super- 
ficial presence in these places of articles such as glass beads, 
which indicates that the Indian population which built these 
sites persisted until well after European contact had become 
established. 



Anthropology of Florida 27 

indian remains from key marco southward 

From the southern extremity of Key Marco the Florida 
coast bends southeastward and describes an arc of a wide 
circle open towards the Gulf. The Gulf for many miles off the 
coast here is shallow and beset with dangerous reefs; and for 
miles between these shallows and the mainland the concavity 
of the bend of the coast is occupied by the chain or archipelago 
of the Ten Thousand Islands, which represent a new land in 
various phases of formation. The border of the mainland itself 
is cut into by a series of short and more or less unknown rivers 
and creeks, which run generally from a northeasterly or easterly 
direction and drain the cypress swamps and everglades of the 
interior. 

These imperfectly known regions teem with insects and 
other pests, but also with fish, moUusks, water fowl and many 
land animals, which advantages of food must have outweighed 
the many disadvantages and dangers of the territory with the 
Indians. The evidence of this is preserved in numerous, and in 
places great and archeologically important, remains of these 
people. 

The remains in question are of two or possibly three classes. 
The first are simple shell heaps, composed principally of oyster 
shells, with a larger or smaller admixture of conchs, a few 
clam shells, turtle shells and bones of fish and various game 
animals. These heaps contain none or but little sand or soil; 
they are generally in the form of more or less pronounced, 
extensive and generally parallel ridges, the troughs between 
which served frequently — if not invariably — as canals which 
facilitated the approach with canoes. They are from such 
evidence as could be gathered poor to almost sterile in archeo- 
logical or skeletal remains of the Indians. Their role was 
doubtless in the main that of platforms for habitations and for 



28 Ales Hrdlicka 



protection against the overflowing waters during storms. They 
were built expressly for these purposes, and that partly of dead 
shells brought to the spot from the beach and the oyster bars, 
and partly by the refuse shells and bones of the habitations. 

Besides these ridges there are found in this region occasional 
isolated good-sized shell mounds. These are usually oval, but 
may be almost circular in outline, have more or less conical 
form with blunt or flat top, and range from about ten to near 
thirty feet in height. The material of which they are built is 
much the same as that of the shell heaps. The object of these 
shell mounds has not been determined. It is possible that some 
served as points for observation, or signalling, or for ceremonial 
observances, and some perhaps also for habitations and burials. 
None of these mounds have apparently as yet been explored. 

The third variety of Indian remains consists of blunt, conical 
mounds ranging from a few to upwards of 20 feet in height, 
and built, at least so far as external appearances indicate, 
principally of sandy muck and small rotten shells. It is not 
unlikely that in some of these mounds shell in larger quantities 
may be found in the interior, for muck and sand were materials 
much more difficult to obtain. These mounds contain possibly 
in many, if not all instances, burials, but they also have in no 
single instance as yet been explored and their contents remain 
unknown. 

In addition, there occur in this region some of the before- 
mentioned low muck-and-shell heaps with burials; and in 
connection with several of the larger sites there are indications 
of ground made for cultivation. 

Notwithstanding the visible importance of some of the sites 
and their great extent, discoveries of archeological specimens as 
well as those of skeletal remains have so far been few and of 
no special value. Fragments of kitchen pottery, generally 



Anthropology of Florida 29 

undecorated, while not exactly common, are to be found every- 
where, but complete vessels seem to be as yet unknown. The 
most common "relics" are the doubly perforated conchs which 
evidently were hafted and used for hammers, perforators of 
other conchs, hoes, and similar purposes; and shell sinkers for 
fish nets with which the aborigines were evidently well ac- 
quainted. Stone objects, barring a rare importation, seem 
absent altogether; there is no stone in these regions from which 
they could have been manufactured. 

Nearly all the important sites were personally visited, and 
although nothing like a satisfactory survey was in any case 
possible on account of the insects and other insurmountable 
impediments, some notes could, nevertheless, be made on the 
spot which may help to give a general idea of conditions and 
be of use to future explorers. In detail, the remains in question 
were found to be as follows: 

Whitney River: Whitney River is a charming hidden stream 
of brown clear water, rich in fish. Its mouth is located to the 
S. E. E. and not far from the southernmost point of Key Marco. 
Its banks to the water edge are thickly overgrown with man- 
grove and other vegetation, which during our visit was studded 
here and there and enlivened by water fowl of pure white, rosy, 
blue and white or blue-gray plumage. There are no inhabit- 
ants along the stream and no traces of any white man ever 
having lived there formerly. It is one of the few places missed 
even by Mr. Moore's "Gopher." 

About 5 miles from the mouth of the river — but one is never 
sure about these mouths — on the northern bank of the southern 
branch of the stream and about 50 feet from the water's edge, 
in swampy woods, there is a row of highly interesting and 
promising Indian mounds, and of elevated platforms for 
habitations. 



30 Ales Hrdlicka 



The first mound as one proceeds up the river is a well-shaped, 
typical, conical heap, about 15 to 20 feet high and perhaps 60 
feet in diameter, built of sandy muck, rotten oyster shells and 
shell detritus. It is absolutely intact. 

Next to this mound in up-stream direction and partly con- 
nected with it, is an even larger conical mound, possibly 25 
feet high by over 80 feet base, and of the same composition. 

Still a little farther up, there is a smaller "heap," not con- 
ical; and following this were counted six heaps or mounds, one 
conical, the rest ridge-like or irregular. These are not exactly 
in a line, but as one proceeds up-stream they turn inland. These 
heaps are more shelly, and there are visible a good many small 
to moderate sized conchs, the rest being almost exclusively 
oyster shells, with more or less soil. Like the conical mounds, 
they are entirely untouched by the hand of the explorer. 

This group of mounds and heaps is so beautifully situated 
and is in itself so characteristic, that it would seem admirably 
fit for a little national reservation. Besides which it ought to 
be duly explored, for though there could hardly be expected 
any archeological riches in a moderate sized inland settlement 
of this nature, there may be a good many skeletons. 

Above this site it is difficult if not impossible to penetrate 
the river with even a small launch, and we had to return. But 
from information obtained from those who have trapped over 
this region it appears that about three miles above the site just 
described, on the northern bank of the same branch and not 
far from the bank, there is a solitary low "dirt" mound; and 
that about a mile above this and at some distance from the 
southern bank of the stream there is some "high ground" of 
Indian origin. It is said that the last-named "high ground" 
can be seen from afar and that a small "creek" runs right to it. 



Anthropology of Florida 31 

The exploration of the Whitney River was the brightest 
spot of the whole journey. 

Buttonwood Key: The Buttonwood Key is situated on the 
"Buttonwood Bay" off the mouth of the Whitney River, and 
about 9 miles S, E. of the hamlet of Marco. The Key is thickly 
overgrown with mangrove and other vegetation, which made 
even a superficial survey of the place difficult. It was seen, 
however, that the Indian remains here are very extensive and 
that they consist of shell heaps and ridges, the majority of which 
served undoubtedly for elevated platforms for habitations. 
There are also smaller heaps, and one particularly large one, in 
which the proportion of muck and sand seems to be much 
greater than in others. 

There are no real conical mounds, so far as it was possible to 
ascertain, and there were no surface indications of burials. 

Shell Key: The Shell Key is located on "Shell Heap Bay," 
further below the mouth of the Whitney River, about 10 miles 
from Marco and S miles due east of Cape Romaine. 

It was surveyed so far as the jungle and myriads of mos- 
quitoes would permit. Part of it had at one time been cultivated. 
It is covered with extensive shell heaps, ridges and platforms, 
built up mainly of oyster shells with a smaller proportion of 
conchs and few clams. The heaps, etc., are generally connected 
and resemble much those on the not far distant Buttonwood Key. 
No isolated conical mounds were detected. 

A good survey of the place would probably prove instructive; 
but the site would first have to be well cleared of vegetation. 

Dismal Key: Dismal Key lies something over 13 miles S. E. 
of Cushing's Point on Key Marco. It has been visited by 
Clarence B. Moore, though he makes but a brief mention of 
this occasion and gives no description (p. 18, 13). About 60 acres 
of ground on this Key, according to the estimate of the present 



32 Ales Hrdlicka 



owner, are covered with Indian shell ridges, accumulations and 
mounds. A large part of this high ground is now cultivated and 
known, after the present owner, as Gandeese's or simply Deese's 
Place. It is plainly a site of a large aboriginal settlement. The 
ridges and heaps, as far as they could be examined, were seen to 
be built of oysters, with many conchs, few clam shells, some 
turtle shells, fish and animal bones. In one of the largest ridges, 
to the east of the house, two moderate-sized pits have been dug 
in from the side, possibly by Mr. Moore's men; they show the 
ridge to be composed almost exclusively of tightly packed shells 
and so far as archeological specimens are concerned the excava- 
tion must have been quite unproductive. 

According to the present inhabitants on the Key, who how- 
ever have been there only a short time, no human skeletons have 
yet been discovered on the place; but occasionally they find 
"relics" and fragments of pottery. 

The site surely deserves a mapping and closer attention. 

Pumpkin Key: The Pumpkin Key is situated on Pumpkin 
Key River — which resembles the Whitney — about 4 miles east 
from Deese's Place. It is located on the right bank of the river 
and an old abandoned house shows that the place was not long 
ago inhabited by a white settler; the property now belongs to 
Mr. Barfield, of Caximbas. The house and the place have a bad 
reputation for rattlesnakes, which seem to be more numerous on 
certain of these islands than on others. 

The site is covered with extensive shell heaps, some in the 
nature of mounds, others in the form of ridges, and still others 
in that of elevated platforms. These remains cover many acres 
of ground, and sufficient muck has been mingled with the shells 
to permit of cultivation. Some of the heaps and ridges are, 
however, much more shelly than others. The rank vegetation 
and my guide's apprehension of the rattlers made a good survey 



Anthropology of Florida 33 

of the place quite impossible; but, like the Dismal Key, it would 
seem to deserve closer attention. 

Gomez Key: In proceeding southward and southwestward, we 
passed at some distance the Gomez Key, so named after a pirate, 
on which there are said to be some "high land" and shell heaps. 
It was planned to visit this key on the return journey, which, 
however, proved impracticable. Mr. Moore mentions (p. 6) 
that there are extensive shell deposits partly surrounding a 
basin that fills with the rising tide. 

The Fakahatchee, Thompson and Ellis Places: Our route 
followed towards the Fakahatchee (or "Fikahatchee") Island 
and River (noted briefly by Mr. Moore, pp. 8, 12, 13). On the 
island we stopped at "Joe Thompson's Place," which was found to 
be another old, extensive Indian site with shell heaps, shell-muck- 
and-sand mounds, and other accumulations. A good-sized and 
rather steep conical mound, perhaps 20 feet high, is located near 
the house and digging in it by the settlers is said to have resulted 
in the discovery of human bones. 

A little farther on and facing a fine bay is the pleasant home 
of Mr. J. B. Ellis. About 150 yards east of the Ellis house is an 
isolated, good-sized ridge constructed almost exclusively of oyster 
shells. It is about 200 feet long and 80 feet broad, by 12 to 15 feet 
high. The surface of this ridge was once cultivated and plowed 
over, which work, however, yielded so far as remembered no 
bones or other specimens. This mound is of very regular outline 
and has not as yet been dug into by any explorer. 

Across the Bay from the Ellis place, on a point between the 
Fakahatchee and East Rivers, is the Down's Place, where a 
stop was made over night. The point shows but slight traces of 
Indians. About four miles up the Fakahatchee River there is, 
however, reported a shell-and-soil mound. 



34 Ales Hrdlicka 



Ferguson River: A few miles S. E. of Down's Place is the small 
Ferguson River, and a short distance up this stream is reported 
a fair sized shell-and-soil mound, with some shell heaps. 

To the west (or slightly N. W.) of the Ferguson River is 
Russels Island, on which, according to Mr. Moore (p. 9, 12, 13), 
and also the writer's informants, there are extensive shell heaps 
and mounds; and between Russels Island and Tiger Key other 
shell heaps are said to exist on a key, the name of which, if it has 
any, could not be determined. 

To the southwest of Ferguson River is the Sand Fly Pass, 
and on one of the keys in its vicinity is the so-called "Boggass 
Place" where a shell-and-soil mound and shell heaps are reported. 

Allen's River: This river lies a short distance S. E. of the 
Ferguson, and is mainly notable on account of the beautiful 
little settlement near its mouth known as the "Everglades." 
It is here that the writer had the good fortune of meeting Mr. 
George W. Storter to whom he is indebted for much valuable 
information. Mr. Storter is the hotel and store-keeper of the 
place, an old-timer in the region and one of the best friends of the 
Seminole Indians, the first representatives of whom were met 
with at his place. 

The short and picturesque Allen River is of no great im- 
portance to archeology. About 5 or 6 miles up the river from 
Everglades there are several low shell heaps of moderate size, 
which in this flat country bear the exaggerated name of "Black 
Hills." In visiting these inconspicuous heaps we found them 
quite uninteresting, but on them were three Seminole huts with 
an abandoned orange grove in full bearing in the vicinity, and 
the fruit of the latter constituted some compensation for our 
journey (PI. II). 

About ly2 miles S. E. of Allen's River is the Halfway Creek, 
on which, well up stream, there is reported an Indian mound said 
to cover about a quarter of an acre. 




PLATE 11. Seminole Hut, Allen's River 



Anthropology of Florida 35 

Chokaloskee Island: The region now entered and for 15 miles 
S. E. of Allen's River, appears to have been one of the most 
important centers of Indian settlements on the southwestern 
coast of the peninsula. It shows site after site of Indian occupa- 
tion, and some of these are of great extent as well as of evident 
importance, though strangely lacking as everything else in these 
regions in the earmarks of a really old age. 

West and south of Allen's River is a large bay, and 3 miles 
across this brings one to the favorably situated Chokaloskee 
Island, along the shores of which are scattered the nice red- 
roofed cottages of the local fishermen. The area of the island, 
which, lying between two large bays, forms a natural center of 
the whole region, is 105 acres, and at least 80 acres of this is 
covered with great Indian shell ridges, mounds and other 
accumulations. Much of this has now been plowed over or 
otherwise affected by white men's occupation, but what remains 
is still most impressive. The place should, by all means, be 
mapped out by a competent archeologist or surveyor before 
buildings and the removal of shells for various purposes will 
obliterate its original aspect still further. It must have been 
quite a metropolis of the Indians. 

On the southwestern extremity of the island and close to the 
water's edge, stands a remarkable steep-sided shell mound, 
over 25 feet high (Mr. Moore gives 27, pp. 9, 10, 13) and cov- 
ering considerable ground. Its base is oval in outline, and the 
platform on the top is close to 90 feet in its longer and approxi- 
mately 25 feet in its shorter diameter. The mound is built of 
oyster shells (in the main), but the flat top is covered with sand, 
muck and ashes. This top may have been used for some special 
habitation; but whether or not, it made a fine point for observa- 
tions and possibly also for some ceremonies, as well as signalling. 

To the southwest of this mound a canal leads from the bay 
towards a pond in the interior of the island; and there had been 



36 Ales Hrdlicka 



in all probability other channels that lead among the shell heaps. 
In Mr. Moore's words, the canal runs between two graded ways, 
which "terminate in mounds facing each other. The eastern- 
most mound, slightly the higher, on its western side, where it 
rises from the canal, has a slope of 31 degrees. Its height above 
the level of the bottom of the canal is 18 feet 4 inches and 22 
feet 4 inches above low water level." 

The settlers on Chokaloskee Island in promiscuous digging 
have found numerous relics, and on the western side of the island, 
on property now belonging to Mr. C. S. Smallwood, there were 
plowed up in black soil human bones belonging probably to 
various skeletons; unfortunately these were not preserved. The 
site may yet some day yield something rivalling the finds at 
Cushing's Point. 

The keys to the west and southwest of Chokaloskee Island 
are said to be poor in Indian remains, though they may bear 
some low shell heaps. To this there are, however, two exceptions. 
About lyi miles N. W. of the island is the already mentioned 
Sand Fly Pass, with rather extensive shell deposits; and further 
northwest, about \yi or 2 miles from the Gulf and on the south 
side of West Pass, there is reported a good sized shell mound 
which has not yet been examined. 

Turner s River: The paucity of Indian remains to the west 
of Chokaloskee Island is more than compensated for by the rich- 
ness of those to the east and southeast. 

Directly southeast of the Island is the mouth of Turner's 
River, and about half a mile up the river on the southern bank 
there is the most noteworthy group of shell heaps and mounds 
to be found in the entire region. From its present inhabitants 
this site is known as the "Brown's Place." At the edge of it there 
is a poor frame house in which our party found the kind, nu- 
merous and at that time both mosquito and influenza-ridden 
family of Mr. Brown. Notwithstanding the illness, however, we 




Pi 



> 



-1 



Anthropology of Florida 37 

were received in a very friendly way and Mr. Brown accompanied 
us over the ground which in part was being cultivated, but in a 
larger part was overgrown by weeds or jungle. 

The remarkable remains here are intact except over a part 
of the least important shell accumulations which have been 
plowed over; and they show more plainly than any other remains 
seen along the coast a definite system and organization. They 
consist essentially of a row of 7 (there may have been originally 
8 or 9) low but conspicuous shell ridges of much regularity; and 
of two parallel rows of large, uniform, conical mounds, running 
in the same direction as the shell heaps, and one ending slightly 
beyond these, while the other continues into the inland man- 
grove swamp. 

These various structures — and they seem fully to deserve 
that name^begin close to the bank of the river, and the depres- 
sions between them may have been used originally for approach 
by canoes. 

The shell heaps are as regular as so many swells of the ocean 
following each other, and are constructed of the usual material, 
namely, oyster shells with some conchs, a few clams, bones, etc. 
Some muck and sand among the shells permits of cultivation. 

Above and parallel with these uniform low shell ridges is the 
first straight row of 8 or 9 conical, muck-sand-and-shell mounds, 
which, so far as could be estimated, are about 12 to 15 feet high 
by 60 to 70 feet in diameter at base. They are isolated, ;'. e., not 
connected with each other, about equal distance apart and quite 
uniform in character. 

Above this row of mounds is a broader depression, in which 
there are three large and somewhat irregular shell heaps, which, 
however, are far from filling the space. And beyond the depres- 
sion there is a second longer row of conical, isolated equidistant 
and very uniform mounds, extending from near the river into 




Figure 1. Shell Heaps and Mounds on Brown's Place, Turner's River 



Anthropology of Florida 39 

the swampy woods in the distance. This wonderful row is, 
according to Mr. Brown, over a quarter of a mile long. The 
individual mounds resemble closely those of the first row, but 
seem to be even more regular and more nearly circular. Like the 
former they are built of sandy muck with some shell admixture. 
Regrettably the richer ground of all these mounds, of both rows, 
favors vegetation so much that a good photograph of them, or 
even a good extended survey was impossible. But their arrange- 
ment, uniformity and intactness left'' a deep impression. 

A few relics have been accidentally discovered on this most 
interesting site, but no human bones were as yet found, or any 
rarer specimens, which has been fortunate, favoring the preserva- 
tion of the works; but this immunity may not be of long duration. 

The site is so characteristic, so easily approached and prob- 
ably so important to science, that steps, it would seem, ought to 
be taken to preserve it for posterity, which could best be done 
by making it a national reservation. The expense of this at 
present would be insignificant; and little time should be lost in 
having it carefully surveyed, which could be done with no great 
cost or difficulty at a time when the mosquito pest abates in 
some measure. 

Upper Tunur's River: About 4 miles up the river from 
Brown's Place is a moderate sized mound, built of small 
shells, but mostly soil, on the south bank of the river and near 
its edge. Traces of Indian camping grounds it is said occur also 
at other spots along the lower stretches of the river. 

About 6 miles from the mouth of the river and on its southern 
bank, there is reported a rather prominent "heap" which prob- 
ably represents an Indian site. 

About 7 miles from the mouth is a piece of high ground known 
as "Mount Pleasant." It represents accumulations of Indian 
origin. And about half a mile farther north, on the northern 
bank, there is a moderate-sized mound. 



40 Ales Hrdlicka 



At the head of the Turner River, in Section 36, Township 52, 
south 30 E. (located by the Dept. Agriculture Map), or 9 miles 
approximately N. E. and E. of the mouth of the river, in a 
cypress swamp, are reported several large Indian mounds or 
heaps. One of these is described as a good-sized conical mound, 
which may possibly contain burials. 

Finally, about half a mile still further up the river, which 
now has become a mere creek, and on its southern side, is the 
McKinney's Place, where a lot of human bones has been discov- 
ered in a small elevation. According to Mr. Ellis, the burial 
"mound" on McKinney's Place was only about 2}4 feet high. 
It was composed of dirt and rotten leaves and contained many 
human bones. The surface of the heap was cultivated and the 
bones uncovered were thrown aside; but the deposit has not been 
exhausted. 

According to Mr. Storter, there is also an Indian mound on 
Robert's Creek, about 18 miles E. of Turner's River. 

Barnes River: To the southeast of Chokaloskee Bay is the 
Barnes River. Not far from what is regarded as the mouth of 
this river and about 3 miles from the Chokaloskee Island, on a 
nameless key, is the so-called Lopez Place, on which are reported 
about 15 acres of shell heaps and mounds. Some of the shell 
heaps are said to be of good size. 

On the southeast extremity of the Island and about four 
miles from the Lopez Place there is said to be another site with 
shell heaps, known as the House's Hammock. Some bones 
(human?) have been here recovered. 

Neither of these places could be visited. 

About 6 miles up Barnes River is reported a "dirt" 
mound, with possibly some shells, covering one-fourth acre or 
more. It is located about one-half mile N. E. of the stream on 
the edge of the swamp. 



Anthropology of Florida 41 

New River: Southeast of Barnes River and running parallel 
with it is the rather insignificant New River, and at the head of 
this, about 2 miles from Sunday Bay, on the southern bank of 
the stream and close to its bank, is mentioned a moderate- 
sized Indian mound composed mostly of soil with some shells. 

About 2 miles S. E. from the head of New River there is, 
according to R. E. Hamilton, a large mound which he estimates 
to be at least 20 feet high, with "high land" all around. The 
whole is situated in a mangrove swamp with a small creek or 
canal leading to it. 

A short distance further south is the Howard Wood Creek on 
which, about 4 miles due E. from House's Hammock and about 
2 miles from the mouth of the creek, is reported an Indian 
mound situated on the northern bank of the creek. 

Chatham Bend: A prominent water course somewhat further 
south is known as the Chatham Bend "River." This river and 
the so-called North Pass unite at an angle and the prominent 
land forming this angle is the "IVatson's Place," locally famous for 
a number of murders which some years ago were committed on 
it and in its vicinity. Mr. Moore mentions it in one of his 
reports (p. 10). 

The beautiful promontory is covered with Indian remains, 
mainly shell and shell-and-muck heaps, which however have 
been largely plowed down and are covered with cane fields and 
other cultivation. The present tender of the place, Mr. Trueman 
Ivey, estimates the total of ground covered here by Indian 
remains at about 40 acres. Beyond the northern limit of the 
now mostly formless accumulations there are still two well- 
preserved, large low oval shell-soil platforms or mounds, of 
unknown purpose and contents. 

Miller s Point: There is no record of any human bones having 
ever been discovered on Watson's Place, but a short distance 



42 Ales Hrdlicka 



west of the place on the opposite side of the river there is a 
little promontory known as Millers Point, and about 400 yards 
further down along the bank, near the mouth of a little creek, 
there is a low, long burial heap. It is located almost at the edge 
of the river and can be located without much difficulty. Its 
height is only about 2 feet, but it is approximately 30 feet broad 
and several times that in length. It is now overgrown with 
mangrove, but excavations here would doubtless prove fertile 
so far as skeletal remains are concerned. A few years ago four 
skulls were taken from the surface of this mound, and later on a 
skeleton. The writer found some human bones on the surface, 
but the mosquitoes and lack of all help made excavation at the 
time out of question. 

Chevalier Place: To the south of Chatham Bend River and 
the Chevalier Bay, is a narrow arm of water known as the 
Chevalier Pass, and the land to the west of this, with an old 
ramshackle, abandoned house, is known as the "Chevalier 
Place." Most of this consists of elevated ground partly made 
by the Indians and partly by former white settlers from older 
Indian accumulations. A little over 100 yards W. of the house 
and just beyond the clearing there still stand 5 oblong good- 
sized "hills," made of oyster shell, conchs and soil. Four are 
intact, while the fifth shows a small excavation. It is said that 
a much larger mound has been distributed over the land by the 
white owners, but it is not known what, if anything, had been 
discovered in it in the way of Indian remains. Some low shell 
heaps are also found along the edge of the water. 

Gopher Key: The name "gopher" is applied in these regions 
to a large land turtle. Gopher Key is about 3)4 to 4 miles W. 
or slightly S. W. of Chevalier Place, and is so hidden that it can 
only be found with an experienced guide and some good fortune. 
The way to it leads through Chevalier Pass, over a small, rotten 
sulphur-smelling "pocket" to the right of the pass, along a long, 




Oi 



e 

c/; 

> 

< 





■■ 


■^ 




»•*., 




!»X 




mk 




^Bn 


^ 


IHk 


m 






Anthropology of Florida 43 

narrow, almost obstructed "lost" channel leading through 
mangrove swamps, and over two oblong shallow "bays" — a 
hidden little world which is a paradise of birds, fish, alligators 
and mosquitoes. The key can only be approached in a very light 
skiff. It is about 3 miles inland from the Gulf, and was originally 
a low inconspicuous mangrove swamp such as all those in the 
neighborhood. 

The landing place on the key is unpretentious. It is marked 
by the remnants of an old blown down shack, near which there 
are a number of small piles of clam shells, possibly deposited 
there by the white settlers who once braved the locality. Some- 
what further inland there is a rich abandoned grapefruit orchard 
and a field, and these are located on one of the most interesting 
and imposing groups of mounds and heaps that exist in the Ten 
Thousand Islands. 

Among the artificial elevations the nearest is a black soil 
ridge or ridge-platform, perhaps 200 feet long by 100 feet in 
width at the broadest part, and composed of rich mucky soil. 
To the S. W. of this is seen a small heap exclusively of conchs. 
Connected with the ridge to the N. and running E. and W., is a 
good sized ridge of conchs, and N. of this, over a trough about 
7 feet deep, is another conch ridge running parallel with the 
preceding and extending northward in the form of a heap- 
plateau. Other elevations, some regular and bluntly conical, 
some ridge-like, and some in the form of irregular platforms, are 
located in a northern and western direction. On another black 
soil ridge to the north were seen old ashes; and not far distant is 
a good sized, conical mound, about 20 feet in diameter at the 
base, built entirely of conchs — so far as learned a unique occur- 
rence for such a structure on this coast. Some of the mounds of 
the complex are upwards of 12 feet in height and of imposing 
mass. The whole site looks important and surely deserves a 
careful survey as well as exploration. It would make, with its 



44 Ales Hrdlicka 



approaches and surroundings, an excellent mound-bird-and- 
virgin-nature reservation. 

Across the creek to the west of Gopher Key and about 500 
yards up the stream, near where two creeks meet, on the northern 
bank, there is an oblong good sized oyster shell and soil mound, 
approximately 90 feet long by 30 across and about 5 feet in 
height, which was reported to be a burial place. A small excava- 
tion made by someone in the past showed only shells, but it is 
said that some bones had been discovered. 

Shell piles occur at several places along the banks on the 
Gopher Key, and from the western side of the island several 
probably partly or wholly artificial troughs or channels can be 
discerned which evidently served for the approach of canoes. 
One or two of the unnamed keys in the vicinity are said also to 
contain shell accumulations. 

Lossman s River: Below Gopher Key no Indian remains of 
consequence are known until one reaches near the mouth of 
Lossman's River. To the N. W. of this are the so-called Wood 
Key and Porpoise Point where are located the Hamiltons, local 
fishermen. Eastward across the bay, on a key which seems to 
have no definite name, though sometimes referred to as St. Mary's 
Island, is the place of Eugene Hamilton, and on this are located 
Indian accumulations of considerable interest. 

The last mentioned place is approached through a narrow 
creek about 400 to 500 yards long, and over a recently made shell 
path which leads to the Hamilton's house. The house itself 
stands on a demolished shell heap, while other shell heaps are to 
the right of the house at some distance. To the left of the house 
and about 150 feet from it, is a large black soil ridge extending 
for several hundred feet in the direction of the creek and curving 
along the bank of this. Through this ridge has been made a 
narrow road and some relics as well as bones were found during 
the excavation. 




u: 



c 



Anthropology of Florida 45 

The Indian-made ground here covers on the whole, according 
to the estimate of the owners, about 20 acres. In addition, to 
the N. E. of the clearing and well in the mangrove swamp, is a 
very large nearly circular and uniform shell and soil mound, 
which thus far is entirely intact and the significance and contents 
of which are uncertain. 

On the return journey it was observed that the creek or 
canal leading to the place is so regular that possibly it had been 
modified if not made by the Indians. The hidden nature of the 
whole place deep in the swamps suggests strongly a fear of 
enemies. 

This place also seems well worth a careful exploration. 

Lossmaris Key: Just south of Lossman's River is the so- 
called Lossman's Key, on the northern end of which are shell 
accumulations of an old Indian site. Mr. Moore says (pp. 10, 
13) they consist of "large, level causeways and platforms of 
shell." They were not seen. 

Royal Palm Hammock: About two miles up from the mouth 
of Lossman's River and about ^ mile to the south of this, there 
is the last remarkable Indian site known to exist along the coast. 
It is an oasis deep in the mangrove swamps which, from some 
royal palms growing on it, is known as the Royal Palm Hammock. 
Others, however, call it Johnson's Hammock, after a settler who 
at one time had the hardihood to claim it. Today the place is 
abandoned and most difficult of approach. It is necessary to 
leave the launch far away in the shallow bay, and then proceed 
for about half a mile through a small creek or canal on a light 
skiff. After that the channel becomes obstructed and it is 
necessary to advance a long distance along an old path between 
the canal and an oozy, ill-ventilated, mosquito infested swamp. 
The writer was accompanied on this journey by Henry Shaw, a 
local colored trapper and hunter, but by the time the Indian 
ground was reached, both of us were pretty well "done up." 



46 Ales Hrdlicka 



The swarms of mosquitoes against which no remedy or exertion 
seemed to avail and the poisonous air along the damp path where 
the sun never penetrates, were all that a strong man could bear, 
and by the time the launch was reached again the effects of the 
journey were marked, in one of us at least, by retching, headache 
and general depression. Under such circumstances it will be 
quite evident that not much exploration of the jungle of John- 
son's Hammock could be attempted. There were seen there, 
however, some remarkably large and steep shell heaps, wonderful 
productions when one reflects that all the shells had to be brought 
there from a long distance. There are said to be about 40 acres 
there of artificially made Indian ground. Perhaps some day it 
may be possible to carry out a satisfactory survey of this locality. 
Its hidden nature reflects even more than that of the site on 
Eugene Hamilton's place the fear of the Indians for their safety; 
no other reason would seem to have been weighty enough to 
induce them to choose such a distant and pest-ridden place for 
the site of their village. 

The only finds reported from the place were some old white 
man's objects, possibly of Spanish origin. 

Other Indian Remains Along the Lossmans River: Besides the 
above there were reported to the writer the following additional 
aboriginal remains along the stream under consideration: 

About a mile from the mouth of the river, on its southern 
bank, is a shell and soil mound or ridge. 

About 2}4 miles from the mouth of the river and on its 
northern bank, there are about 5 acres of shell ridges and high 
land made by the Indians. 

About 7 miles N. E. and E. from the mouth of the river, on 
"Onion Key," is an Indian camp site with some shell and soil 
accumulations. 



Anthropology of Florida 47 

Finally, about 12 to 15 miles up the river, on the mainland, 
there is a good sized conical mound of shell and soil (another in- 
former spoke of this mound as being on "Rocky Creek"). 

Lossman s River to the Southern Extremity of the Peninsula: 
The part of the coast south of Lossman's River is but little 
known. It is said to be even more swampy or difficult of ap- 
proach than the region of the Ten Thousand Islands. According 
to unanimous reports of the local hunters and fishermen, how- 
ever, it contains no Indian remains of magnitude or importance. 
Mr. Moore, who circumnavigated the point, found none. 
The only known remains to the few local men who have been 
over this territory are an Indian site with some accumulations 
N. or N. E. of the mouth of Rogers River; a small Indian site 
at the head of Harney River, about 20 miles inland; and a few 
isolated heaps in the vicinity of Cape Sable. 

Neither Mr. Ellis nor Mr. Storter, both of whom have been 
through the region about White Water Bay, Cape Sable and the 
southern coast of the peninsula, knew there of any Indian 
remains worth mentioning, with the exception of a few "mounds" 
and an old canal on the edge of "Mud Lake" near the southern 
extremity of the Cape (Ellis). Possibly this is the same site 
which has been spoken of by another informer as consisting of 
some shell heaps and a black soil with fine shell mound, located 
on H. C. Low's place between the middle and the east promon- 
tories of the Cape. A moderate sized mound is also mentioned 
as existing about 2 miles N. or N. E. from the little settlement 
of Flamingo, on the southern shore of the Cape. The rest of the 
southern shore is said to be so low, muddy and difficult, that no 
settlements of Indians would have been possible. 

It is quite likely, of course, that something additional in the 
way of Indian remains along this part of the coast may be dis- 
covered in the future, either accidentally or through explora- 
tion; but the chances of finding there any large sites that may 



48 Ales Hrdlicka 



have escaped the sharp eye and curiosity of the local hunters 
and fishermen, is a very small one. 



GENERAL IMPRESSIONS 

The general impressions gained from the survey of the 
southwestern coast of Florida may be summarized by the 
writer as follows: 

1. The coast region from Charlotte Harbor southward is, on 
the whole, rich in remains of Indian occupation. This is par- 
ticularly true of the Ten Thousand Islands from Key Marco to 
the Gopher Key and of the keys along the Lossman's River. 
South of Lossman's River, however, aboriginal remains appear 
to be few in number and of little importance. 

2. The remains consist of extensive shell-heaps, shell mounds, 
shell and muck mounds, shell and muck ground for cultivation, 
and canals, with inland shelters or ponds for the canoes of the 
Indians. 

3. The shell heaps on the various sites cover from a part of 
an acre to upwards of fifty acres of ground, show considerable 
uniformity, and are generally arranged in a parallel way, which 
indicates a system of construction. They consist essentially of 
oyster shells, with a lesser proportion of conchs, a small quantity 
of clams, a few turtle shells with fish and animal bones, among 
which is a scattering of shreds of common undecorated or but 
slightly decorated pottery. These heaps are not simple kitchen 
middens, but purposely built ridges or mounds, from all available 
shell. They were elevated platforms, which the Indian was 
obliged to build before he could feel assured of the safety of his 
habitation from inundation during high tides or storms. They 
are rather sterile though not barren of remains, both cultural 
and skeletal; but rare individual isolated shell mounds have 
served for burials. 



Anthropology of Florida 49 

4. The constructions of soil (sandy muck) and shell-detritus 
(or shell in small amount) are met with in the form of ridges, but 
more commonly in that of conical, more or less blunt-topped 
mounds of good dimensions. Such mounds occur singly or in 
rows. Some may have served the same purpose as the shell 
heaps, that is, as elevated platforms for habitations, while others 
may have been built over burials. As yet their contents are 
practically unknown. 

5. Low soil-and-shell heaps occur occasionally and generally 
contain burials; and burials are said to have also been met with 
in made soil which showed no mound formation. 

6. Made ground for agriculture is found in some but not 
other localities. It consists generally of muck with shell among 
which conchs may be numerous, and may in a large part represent 
the refuse of the habitations. In it potsherds and shell implements 
appear to be more common than in the heaps or mounds. 

7. The shell-ridge platforms for habitations were generally 
so constructed that between each two there was left a good- 
sized trough which connected with an outer common depression, 
the whole system in all probability serving for channels of 
approach by canoes to the habitations. Longer canals or canal- 
ized creeks are found in many instances to lead to the Indian site; 
and sometimes there may be a channel to a single mound, for 
the purpose possibly of facilitating the bringing in of the material 
from which the mound was constructed. There are also in a 
number of places what appear to have been — or still are — 
artificial ponds or small inland harbors, which would afford a 
good shelter for the canoes. 

These canals and harbors, like the shell-heap platforms, repre- 
sent it is plain no separate culture and people, but only local and 
necessary developments due to peculiar environmental con- 
ditions. 



50 Ales Hrdi.icka 



8. No trace whatever was met anywhere along the coast of 
"pile dwellings", and it would seem that Gushing in assuming 
that such existed at Marco may have been mistaken, though an 
occasional use of short posts would have been nothing to wonder 
at under the conditions. The Seminoles use such short posts 
under their huts. 

9. From Key Marco south to Chatham River the Indian 
sites in general are exposed; but further south there is manifest 
a strong tendency to seclusion in the swamps, the object of which 
could scarcely have been other than protection. This would 
indicate that the tribe or tribes were in danger of attacks by 
other Indians. 

10. The archeological remains of the region appear to con- 
nect directly with those of Charlotte Harbor, and represent 
according to all indications the same culture, people and period. 

The only too scanty skeletal material we thus far possess of 
these people indicates that they were moderately oblong to short 
headed, medium to tall, and moderately to strongly built Indians, 
similar in many respects to those whose remains are found in 
the mounds over a large part of the western as well as the 
eastern coasts of the peninsula and also in the interior. It is a 
type which was seemingly close to that of the present Seminoles, 
though these cannot be identified with the remains, being 
relatively newcomers to Florida from further northwest. 

Judging from such scant notes as have been preserved to us 
on the Indians of the southwestern coast of the Peninsula, the 
inhabitants and builders of the great shell heaps could have been 
no other than the "Caloosas" (or "Calusas") who gave their 
name to the Caloosahatchee River, the stream flowing between 
Lake Okechobee and Charlotte Harbor.' 



' See art. Calusas, by J. Mooney, in the Handbook of American Indians, Bull. 30, Bur. 
Am. Ethn.; also Safford (W. E.), Indians of Paradise Key. Smithsonian Rep., 1917. 



Anthropology' of Florida 51 

11. Finally, a remarkable fact connected with the Indian 
remains of the southwestern coast, notwithstanding their fre- 
quently great extent, is the general impression of relative 
freshness. It is evident enough that to build such great accu- 
mulations must have taken a long time, perhaps centuries; but 
the earmarks of any real antiquity are wanting, which is in 
accord with the uniformity and paucity of archeological remains 
on these sites, with the relatively small number of burials, with 
the frequent occurrence of articles of white man's introduction, 
and possibly also with the commonness of marks on the bones 
of venereal disease. 

The general conclusions which would seem to be justified 
from the above facts, are, that the southwestern coast of Florida 
from Charlotte Harbor to the end of the Peninsula was peopled 
during late precolumbian and well into historic times by a large 
Indian population of homogeneous nature culturally, though 
possibly not somatologically, and that these people to the north- 
ward merged with the Indians who are so well represented in 
the secondary burials on some of the Keys and in the mounds 
of the St. John's River. 

The remaining problems are just what became of all this 
population as well as of the more northern large coastal group; 
exactly what these groups were; and whether or not the remains 
of the Caloosas group may have merged with parts of the 
Seminole tribe. Of course we know of their struggles with the 
Spanish and their partial deportation; but it seems strange that 
such a large population, not only of the west coast but also of 
other parts of Florida, should have completely disappeared since 
the Spanish connections with the Peninsula. 



52 Ales Hrdlicka 



FORT MYERS TO LAKE OK.ECHOBEE AND THE EAST COAST 

The road from Fort Myers to Lake Okechobee leads over, or 
in the vicinity of, the Caloosahatchee River. Along this river 
are a number of more or less insignificant sand mounds, 
probably with burials. 

About 8 miles N. E. of the small town of Labelle, however, 
there is a large sand mound, which may be seen indicated on the 
Agricultural map of the country. This mound has been spoken 
of by so many who have visited the region that the writer was 
anxious to see it. As so often happens, however, the reality fell 
considerably below the aroused expectations. Nevertheless there 
was found a huge heap of white sand, oval in outline, about 20 to 
25 feet in height and approximately 160 yards in circumference at 
the base. A number of excavations have been made by local 
explorers in the mound, but so far as could be learned without 
results. The largest of these holes was, however, only about 
7 to 8 feet deep and the interior of the mound has as yet been un- 
touched. It is quite likely that it contains some burials. 

Between Labelle and Lake Okechobee nothing of importance 
in the way of Indian remains could be learned of, and the same 
applies to the vicinity of the lake itself. There are traces of 
Indian occupation, but they are not conspicuous. The many 
canals which have been and are now being constructed both to 
the west and to the east of the lake, have as far as could be 
learned failed to reveal any Indian remains of consequence. 
Perhaps the most interesting was the discovery of an old dug-out 
canoe, which is now on exhibition in the garden of the lady 
Mayor of Moore Haven (1918). 

It appears that no mounds have as yet been located either 
about Lake Okechobee or to the east of it. The interior of the 
peninsula at this latitude is, therefore, according to all indica- 
tions so far, much more sterile in Indian remains of all sorts than 
the coast regions. 



Anthropology of Florida 53 

The Seminoles 

The Seminole Indians, now about 560 strong,* are scattered 
and roam over most of southern Florida below the latitude of 
Lake Okechobee. They can frequently be met with individually 
or in small parties among the Ten Thousand Islands. A few 
work occasionally for the whites, but the large majority prefer 
to live freely in the wilderness, moving from place to place in 
small groups. 

As no somatic data on a full-blood Seminole have as yet been 
secured and the tribe is of some importance, it was the hope of 
the writer that he would meet a few individuals or groups along 
the coast and that perhaps some of these Indians might prove 
full-bloods and be induced to submit to a few measurements. 
Those contingents of the tribe which visit the eastern coast are 
known to contain a good deal of admixture of white as well as 
some negro blood; but those of the southwest coast have never 
been reported upon except by the local whites, who claimed that 
any form of miscegenation was exceedingly rare in this region. 

The expectation of finding some of the natives was realized, 
though only in a small measure. The total seen were four young 
men. Two of these were found at Mr. Storter's place at Ever- 
glades and two were met accidentally — one in an old dug-out 
and one in a new one which he was leisurely finishing at each 
stop — on the shore at the abandoned Chevalier place further 
south. Of these four, two were mix-bloods, one very plainly so, 
but two seemed to be free from admixture, and one of these sub- 
mitted to measurements. Two of the men were also photo- 
graphed (see PI. VII). A larger party regrettably was missed at 
Chatham Bend by only a few hours. 



' The latest official number was 585, but recently there were a series of deaths in the tribe 
from influenza. On January 16th ten were reported to have thus died, but the number is prob- 
ably greater. 



54 Ales Hrdlicka 



The full-blood impress one as typical, ordinary Indians. The 
two seen were slightly deeper than medium brown in color, with 
straight black hair and the general characteristics of the oblong 
to slightly short-headed type of the native. The stature was 
moderate to fair, the body and limbs well developed. The one 
who submitted to measurements gave the following proportions: 

Name — Boy Jim. 

Age — Approximately 20-22. 

Full-blood Seminole in appearance. 

Stature 165 cm. 

Head: Maximum length 18.4 " 

Maximum breadth 14.9 

Height (from line connecting floors of auditory canals to 

bregma) 13.6 

Cephalic Index 81 .0 

Cephalic module (or mean diameter) 15.63 cm. 

m u • 1. T J (mean of length -t - bread th) .. . 

Mean Height Index , ■ , '/ ■ * 

Face: Height to nasion 11.9cm. 

Height to crinion 17.7 

Diameter bizygomial maximum 13.6 

Diameter frontal minimum 10. 

Diameter bigonial 10.4 

Facial Index, lower 67.? 

Facial Index, total ~(>-S 

Nose: Height 5 . 6 cm. 

Breadth 3.8 

Nasal Index 67. P 

Mouth: Breadth 5 .4 cm. 

Left Ear: Height 5.8 

Breadth 3.4 " 

Ear Index 58 .6 

All of these measurements and indices, it will be recognized, 
are quite common for a south eastern, medium developed, young 
adult or slightly subadult Indian. 




o 



> 

u 

H 
< 










y ^ 



III ^^^sr^tfj 




:f 



' -s 



< I 



< 

Oh 




PLATE IX. Approximate General Distribution of the Rounded (red) and the Oblong (blue) 

Headed Types in Florida 



II 

THE PEOPLING AND TRIBES OF FLORIDA 

WHEN Ponce de Leon and his companions reached 
Florida in 1512 or '13, they found the peninsula 
peopled by sedentary Indians. These were divided 
into several tribes speaking different dialects, if not 
languages, and occupying each a certain "province." 

These natives, as far as recorded, gave no information as 
to the time or way of their coming into the peninsula, or of 
their blood relation to other tribes. They were found to have 
had some contacts with the Indians of Cuba (Fontaneda),' and 
there are archeological as well as other evidences of their 
contacts with the neighboring tribes of the continent. 

Among themselves they lived partly in amity, partly in 
discord. They had numbers of more or less grouped villages 
along the Atlantic and the Gulf coasts, about the inland sounds 
and lakes, and along the rivers. Their organization and culture 
were found to be in the main like those of the southern tribes in 
general. They lived on molluscs, fish, game, roots, wild fruit 
with vegetables raised in gardens or small fields. They were 
largely a canoe people, and the men were reputed as fighters. 
Living predominantly on the low, swampy, mangrove- and 
insect-plagued keys and coasts, that were further liable to 
inundation during storms, they constructed extensive shell- 
heaps that would serve as safe, dry and clean platforms for their 
habitations. They also constructed canals and sheltered lagoons 



• Fontaneda (H. de Escalante). Memoria de las cosas y costa y Indies de la Florida. 
(Documentos ineditos, v, 532-546, Madrid, 1866. Same in Smith (B.). Letter of Hernando de 
Soto and Memoir of H. de E. Fontaneda, Washington, 1854. Same Fr. trans, in Terneaux- 
Compans, Voyages, xx, 9-42, Paris, 1841.) 



58 Ales Hrdlicka 



for their canoes, brought where necessary the shell detritus and 
muck for their gardens, and built sand and shell mounds for 
burials and other purposes. 

According to Brinton' there were six main districts and tribes. 
Commencing at the south, the extremity of the peninsula was 
"divided into two independent provinces, one called Tegesta on 
the shores of the Atlantic, the other and most important on the 
west or Gulf coast possessed by the Caloosa Tribe." According 
to Fontaneda the latter province extended along the west coast 
from Tampa Bay southward and about Lake Okechobee. The 
Province of Tegesta embraced a string of villages of fishermen 
stretching from Cape Canaveral to the southern extremity of the 
peninsula. A third province was situated to the "north of the 
province of Callos, throughout the country around the Hillsboro 
River, and from it probably to the Withlacoochee, and easterly 
to the Ocklawaha"; a fourth included the region of the present 
Marion and Alachua Counties; a fifth comprised the lands 
drained by the St. John's River; and a sixth extended from the 
mouth of the St. John's River northward along the coast as far 
as the Savannah. 

Of the Calusa tribe there is some further information^ which 
is thus resumed by James Mooney: This "important tribe of 
Florida was formerly holding the southwest coast from about 
Tampa Bay to Cape Sable and Cape Florida, together with all 
the outlying keys, and* extending inland to Lake Okechobee. 
They claimed more or less authority also over the tribes of the 
east coast north to about Cape Canaveral. 

"Their history begins in 1513, when, with a fleet of eighty 
canoes, they boldly attacked Ponce de Leon who was about to 
land on their coast, and after an all-day fight compelled him to 



• Brinton (Daniel G.). Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, its Literary History, Indian 
Tribes and Antiquities. 12mo, Philadelphia, 1859, 112. 

' Calusa. HanJb. Am. Indians, Bull, xxx, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Pt. 1, 19S-196. 



Anthropology of Florida 59 

withdraw. Two centuries later they were regarded as veritable 
pirates. From one of their villages the modern Tampa takes 
its name. Another, Muspa, existed up to about 1750. About 
the year 1600 they carried on a regular trade by canoe with 
Havana. . . . By the constant invasion of the Creeks and 
other Indian allies of the English in the XVIII century they were 
at last driven from the mainland and forced to take refuge on 
the keys, particularly Key West, Key Vaccas and the Mata- 
cumbe Keys. Romans states that in 1763, on the transfer of 
Florida from Spain to England, the last remnant of the tribe 
numbering then 80 families, or perhaps 350 souls, was removed 
to Havana. This, however, is only partially correct, as a con- 
siderable band under the name of Muspa Indians, or simply 
Spanish Indians, maintained their distinct existence and language 
in their ancient territory up to the close of the second Seminole 
war. Nothing definite is known of the linguistic affinity of the 
Calusa, or their immediate neighbors"; though Brinton and 
Gushing were inclined to class the dialects of the west coast with 
the Muskhogean.^ 

As to the more northern tribes, known from their language 
collectively as Timucua, we have the following further informa- 
tion summarized also by James Mooney:'' They were "a group 
of cognate tribes formerly occupying the greater part of North 
Florida, extending along the east coast from about lat. 28°, 
below Cape Canaveral, to above the mouth of St. John's River, 
and along the west coast probably from Tampa Bay northward 
to about Ocilla River where they met the Appalachee of Mus- 
khogean stock. The Hichiti and Yamasee, also Muskhogean, 
appear to have occupied their north frontier nearly on the 
present state boundary; but the Timucua held both banks of St. 



' Gushing (Frank Hamilton). Exploration of Ancient Key-Dweller Remains on the Gulf 
Coast of Florida. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, 1897, xxxv, 105 el seq. 

' Timucuan Family. Handt. Am. Indians, Bull. 30, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Pt. 2, ISl-lS^. 



60 Ales Hrdlicka 



Mary's River and Cumberland Island. South of lat. 28° the 
west coast was held by the Calusa and the east coast by the Ais 
and Tequesta." Other Timucua tribes were Saturiba on the 
lower St. John; Yustaga, or Hostaqua about the upper Suwanee; 
Potano west of St. John's River between the heads of the With- 
lacoochee and Suwanee; Tocobaga between Withlacoochee 
River and Tampa Bay; Mayaca on the northeast coast; and 
Marracou, 40 leagues from the mouth of St. John's River. 

"The history of the Timucuan tribes begins with the landing 
of Ponce de Leon near the site of the present St. Augustine in 
1513. In 1528 Narvaez led his small army from Tampa Bay 
northward to explore the country of the Apalachee and beyond. 
In 1539 de Soto went over nearly the same route, his historians 
mentioning some twenty tribal or local names within the region, 
including Yustage and Potano. In 1562-64 the French Hu- 
guenots under Ribault and Laudonniere attempted settlements 
at the mouth of St. John's River, explored the middle course 
of the stream and the adjacent interior and became acquainted 
with the tribes of Saturiba (Satouiroua) and Timucua (Thim- 
agoa), as well as the Potano (Potanou) and Yustage (Hostaqua), 
already visited by De Soto. In 1565 the Spaniards under 
Menendez destroyed the French posts, killing all their defenders; 
they then founded St. Augustine and began the permanent 
colonization of the country. Within a few years garrisons 
were established and missions founded." In the course of time, 
"the Timucuan tribes in general, particularly along the east 
coast, accepted Christianity and civilization and became the 
allies of the Spaniards. . . . About 1703, began the series of 
invasions by the English of Carolina and their savage Indian 
allies, Creek, Catawba and Yuchi, by which the missions were 
destroyed, hundreds of men, women and children carried off 
into slavery, while the remnant took refuge close under the walls 
of St. Augustine. The prosperous Apalachee missions shared 



Anthropology of Florida 61 

the same fate. With the decline of the Spanish power and the 
incessant inroads of the Creeks and Seminoles, the native Indians 
rapidly dwindled until on the transfer of the territory to the 
United States, 1821, only a handful remained, and these appar- 
ently belonging mostly to the uncivilized tribes of the southern 
end. It is possible that the remnant of the mission tribes had 
been later shipped to Cuba by the Spaniards, as had been the 
case with the Calusa in 1763." 

As to the incursions and settlement in Florida of the more 
northern tribes, we have the following additional helpful account 
by Brinton:* 

"About the close of the seventeenth century, when the tribes 
who originally possessed the peninsula had become dismembered 
and reduced by prolonged conflicts with the whites, and between 
themselves, various bands from the more Northern regions, 
driven from their ancestral home partly by the English and 
partly by a spirit of restlessness, sought to fix their habitations 
in various parts of Florida. 

"The earliest of these were the Savannahs or Yemassees 
(Yammassees, Jamasees, Eamuses), a branch of the Muskogeh 
or Creek nation, who originally inhabited the shores of the 
Savannah River and the low country of Carolina. Here they 
generally maintained friendly relations with the Spanish, who at 
one period established missions among them, until the arrival of 
the English. These purchased their land, won their friendship, 
and embittered them against their former friends. As the 
colony extended, they gradually migrated southward, obtaining 
a home by wresting from their red and white possessors the 
islands and mainland along the coast of Georgia and Florida. 
The most disastrous of these inroads was in 1686, when they 



• Notes on the Floridian Peninsula, etc., 139 et stq. In these connections see also the most 
recent and thorough work on the "Early History of the Creek Indians and their Neighbours," 
by John R. Swanton, Bull 73, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Wash., 1922. 



62 Ales Hrdlicka 



drove the Spanish colonists from all the islands north of the St. 
John's, and laid waste the missions and plantations that had been 
commenced upon them. Subsequently, spreading over the 
savannas of Alachua and the fertile plains of Middle Florida, 
they conjoined with the fragments of older nations to form 
separate tribes, as the Chias, Canaake, Tomocos or Atimucas, 
and others. Of these, the last mentioned were the most im- 
portant. They dwelt between the St. John's and the Suwannee, 
and possessed the towns of Jurlo Noca, Alachua, Nuvoalla, 
and others. At the devastation of their settlements by the 
English and Creeks in 1704 and 1706, they removed to the shores 
of Musquito Lagoon, 65 miles south of St. Augustine, where 
they had a village, long known as the Pueblo de Atimucas. 

"A portion of the tribe remained in Carolina, dwelling on 
Port Royal Island, whence they made frequent attacks on the 
Christian Indians of Florida, carrying them into captivity, and 
selling them to the English. In April, 1715, however, instigated 
as was supposed by the Spanish, they made a sudden attack on 
the neighboring settlements, but were repulsed and driven from 
the country." They hastened to St. Augustine, "where they 
were given a spot of ground within a mile of the city. Here they 
resided till the attack of Colonel Palmer in 1727, who burnt 
their village and destroyed most of its inhabitants. Some, 
however, escaped, and to the number of twenty men, lived in 
St. Augustine about the middle of the century. Finally, this 
last miserable remnant was enslaved by the Seminoles, and 
sunk in the Ocklawaha branch of that tribe. 

"Originating from near the same spot as the Yemassees were 
the Uchees. When first encountered by the whites, they pos- 
sessed the country on the Carolina side of the Savannah River 
for more than 150 miles commencing 60 miles from its mouth, 
and, consequently, just west of the Yemassees. Closely associ- 
ated with them there were the Palachoclas or Apalachicolos. 



Anthropology of Florida 63 

About the year 1716, nearly all the latter, together with a portion 
of the Uchees, removed to the south under the guidance of 
Cherokee Leechee, their chief, and located on the banks of the 
stream called by the English the Flint River, but which sub- 
sequently received the name of Apalachicola. 

"The rest of the Uchees clung tenaciously to their ancestral 
seats in spite of the threats and persuasion of the English, till 
after the middle of the century, when a second and complete 
migration took place. Instead of joining their kinsmen, however, 
they kept more to the east, occupying sites first on the head- 
waters of the Altamaha, then on the Santilla (St. Tillis), St. 
Mary's, and St. John's, where we hear of them as early as 1786. 
At the cession of the United States (1821), they had a village 10 
miles south of Volusia, near Spring Gardens. At this period, 
though intermarrying with their neighbors, they still maintained 
their identity, and when, at the close of the Seminole war in 
1845, 250 Indians embarked at Tampa for New Orleans and the 
West it is said a number of them belonged to this tribe, and 
probably constituted the last of the race. 

"While these movements were taking place from the north 
toward the south, there were also others in a contrary direction. 
One of the principal of these occurred while Francisco de la 
Guerra was Governor-General of Florida (1684—1690), in conse- 
quence of an attempt made by Don Juan Marquez to remove the 
natives to the West India islands and enslave them. We have 
no certain knowledge how extensive it was, though it seems to 
have left quite a number of missions deserted. 

"What has excited more general attention is the tradition of 
the Shawnees (Shawanees, Sawannees, Shawanos), that they 
originally came from the Suwannee River in Florida, whose name 
has been said to be 'a corruption of Shawanese,' and that they 
were driven thence by the Cherokees. That such was the 
origin of the name is quite false, as its present appellation is 



64 Ales Hrdlicka 



merely a corruption of the Spanish San Juan, the river having 
been called the Little San Juan, in contradistinction to the St. 
John's (el rio de San Juan), on the eastern coast. Nor did they 
ever live in this region, but were scions of the Savannah stem 
of the Creeks, accolents of the river of that name, and con- 
sequently were kinsmen of the Yemassees. 

"The Seminoles, the Creek nation, so called, says Adair, 
from the number of streams that intersected the lowlands they 
inhabited, more properly Muskogeh (corrupted into Muscows), 
sometimes Western Indians, as they were supposed to have 
come later than the Uchees, and on the early maps Cowetas 
(Couitias), and Allibamons from their chief towns, was the last 
of those waves of migration which poured across the Mississippi 
for several centuries prior to Columbus. Their hunting grounds 
at one period embraced a vast extent of country reaching from 
the Atlantic coast almost to the Mississippi. After the settle- 
ment of the English among them, they diminished very rapidly 
from various causes, principally wars and ravages of the small- 
pox, till about 1740 the whole number of their warriors did not 
exceed ISOO. The majority of these belonged to that branch 
of the nation, called from its more southern position the Lower 
Creeks, of mongrel origin, made up of the fragments of numerous 
reduced and broken tribes, dwelling north and northwest of the 
Floridian peninsula. 

"When Governor Moore of South Carolina made his attack on 
St. Augustine, he included in his complement a considerable 
band of this nation. After he had been repulsed they kept 
possession of all the land north of the St. John's, and, uniting 
with certain negros from the English and Spanish colonies, 
formed the nucleus of the nation, svjbsequently called Ishti 
semoli, wild men, corrupted into Seminolies and Seminoles, 
who subsequently possessed themselves of the whole peninsula 
and still remain there. Others were introduced by the English 



Anthropology of Florida 65 

in their subsequent invasions, by Governor Moore, by Col. 
Palmer, and by General Oglethorpe. As early as 1732, they 
had founded the town of Coweta on the Flint River, and laid 
claim to all the country from there to St. Augustine. They 
soon began to make incursions independent of the whites, as that 
led by Toonahowi in 1741, as that which in 1750, under the 
guidance of Secoffee, forsook the banks of the Apalachicola, and 
settled the fertile savannas of Salachua, and as the band that in 
1808 followed Micco Hadjo to the vicinity of Tallahassie. They 
divided themselves into seven independent bands, the Latchivue 
or Latchione, inhabiting the level banks of the St. John's, and 
the sand hills to the west, near the ancient fort Poppa (San 
Francisco de Pappa), opposite Picolati, the Oklevuaha, or 
Oklewaha on the river that bears their name, the Chokechatti, 
the Pyaklekaha, the Talehouyana or Fatehennyaha, the Top- 
kelake, and a seventh, whose name I cannot find. 

"They usually interred the dead, and carefully concealed the 
grave for fear it should be plundered and desecrated by enemies, 
though at other times, as after battle, they piled the slain in- 
discriminately together, and heaped over them a mound of earth. 

"Ever since the first settlement of these Indians in Florida 
they have been engaged in a strife with the whites." 

Since the "second Seminole war" (1836-42) a remnant of the 
tribe, now between five and six hundred strong, is settled and 
roams over the wild region of the Everglades and the Ten 
Thousand Islands. 

numbers; antiquity 

After everything that has been written on the Florida 
Indians is perused there remain two strong outstanding im- 
pressions. One is how very little is known about them; and the 
other is how completely they have vanished. Considering the 
size of the territory there is no other like example in both re- 



66 Ales Hrducka 



spects on the north American continent, and the circumstance 
raises with a double interest the question as to the numbers of 
the Florida Indians before the conquest. On this there are two 
angles of evidence, one the old records, and the other the material 
remains left by the tribes. 

Numbers. — Fontaneda, speaking of the Calusa in about 
1570, gives them 50 villages of 30 to 40 persons each, or the total 
of between 1500 and 2000 persons, which in view of our present 
knowledge of their remains seems too low. Of the Indians further 
north there are no collective estimates, but the cacique Vita- 
chuco was reported to have opposed De Soto with thousands of 
warriors, and there are other instances of high numerical estimates 
of these natives by the early Spaniards. In the easily shared 
opinion of Brinton,' however, we must regard such estimates as 
"the hyperbole of men describing an unknown and strange land, 
supposed to abound in marvels of every description. The natural 
laws that regulate the increase of all hunting tribes, the analogy 
of other nations of equal civilization, the nature of the country, 
and lastly, the adverse testimony of these same writers, forbid us 
to entertain any other supposition." 

Brinton ventures an estimate of his own on this occasion, and 
he may have erred somewhat in the other direction. In his 
opinion, "Including men, women and children, the aboriginal 
population of the whole peninsula probably but little exceeded 
at any one time 10,000 souls"; which for the maximum of the 
Floridian native population about the time of discovery is 
probably too low. The natives were much more than mere 
hunting tribes, but it remains certain that the estimates of the 
Spaniards, as on so many other occasions, were exaggerations. 
Much larger numbers could not possibly have melted away so 
completely between the sixteenth and the beginning of the 
nineteenth century as have the Floridians, of whom since about 



' Brinton (Daniel G.). Floridian Peninsula, etc.. Ill, 112. 



Anthropology of Florida 67 

1820 not a known living trace remains; they have not even left 
any mixed population, though some traces of their blood are 
probably coursing in the veins of the Seminoles who have roamed 
since over the southern parts of the peninsula. 

The bearing of the evidence of the material remains of the 
Florida natives as to the numerical strength of the population 
will, when once exact data become more available, be very 
substantial. As it is, all the needed facts are not yet at the 
student's disposal — still enough is known to afford some in- 
dications. 

The material remains of the old native Floridian population 
consist essentially of shell-heaps and mounds. Due to the 
peculiar nature of conditions on the peninsula, these heaps and 
mounds constitute an index of expended labor, of the number and 
extent of the settlements, and of the approximate numbers of 
burials. All this is complicated by the as yet uncertain time 
element, but the task is seemingly not as complex as in some other 
regions. It is improbable that all the sites were occupied or 
peopled to the maximum at the time of discovery, and the 
accumulation of burials has doubtless taken many generations; 
yet plainly these remains enclose a story which, when once 
properly interpreted, will be of great help to the student seeking 
a solution of the question of the numbers of the Floridian popu- 
lation. 

The shell-heaps, mounds, canals and other works left by these 
Indians are many in number. They are so numerous in some 
regions and so extensive collectively and even individually, that 
at first sight they forcibly suggest many people as well as long 
habitation. But a careful examination does not sustain the 
impression of any great numbers, except perhaps in a few local- 
ities. In a majority of cases the settlement, like its site and 
resources, was, it is plainly seen, small to moderate, and there 
were not many to which one could attribute at any one time over 



68 Ales Hrdlicka 



one hundred families. And the evidence of the burial mounds is 
even more convincing — they are not enough in number nor 
abundant enough in contents to denote more than a moderate 
population. Possibly twice to three times the estimate of 
Brinton, or say twenty-five to thirty thousand, would be a fair 
approximation of the total number of the Florida Indians at the 
time of discovery. 

Antiquity. — The antiquity of man in Florida has already been 
the subject of many discussions and controversies/ and the end 
of these may not be expected so long, on one hand, as the peninsula 
will continue to yield human bones that have become petrified 
or been found in association with those of extinct animals, and 
so long, on the other, as there will be men credulous or uncritical 
enough to accept these as proofs of man's antiquity in that 
region. Both of which are indefinite propositions. The peninsula 
is so rich in fossils of extinct species that an occasional association 
with human burials or bones is unavoidable, and the land pre- 
sents such peculiar and active mineralogical conditions that 
petrifaction of bones or their inclusion in rock is frequently 
rapid and gives results that elsewhere would deserve the most 
earnest attention. The difficulty in Florida, in fact, is not to find 
a more or less "fossilized" human bone, but to find one a few 
centuries old that would not be more or less mineralized, or 
embedded into a more or less consolidated material. That these 
facts have been and will probably be again and again misin- 
terpreted by men, even by scientific men who in their own lines 
are far more careful and critical, cannot but be expected. 

As a matter of fact we have no human remains from Florida, 
or from any other part of the North or South American continent, 
that could conscientiously be accepted as representing man of 



* See Hrdlicka (A.). "The Fossil Man of Western Florida" in "Skeletal Remains Suggest- 
ing or Attributed to Early Man in North America." Bull. 33. Bur. Am. Ethnol., Washington, 
1907, 53-66; and "The 'Fossil' Man of Vero, Florida," in "Recent Discoveries Attributed to 
Early Man in America," Bull. 66, Bur. Am. Ethnol., Washington, 1918, 23-65. 



Anthropology of Florida 69 

antiquity beyond a few thousand years at most, and of other 
than the ordinary Indian type; nor are there apparent any 
indications that anything much older may in these parts of the 
world be yet discovered. 

In many parts of Florida, along the coast, in proximity with 
the big inland rivers, and especially on the western keys, there 
are great shell heaps. But the shell heaps are seen to have been 
made of all the available shells, not only the house refuse, and 
so the problem is merely how long it would take, with the well- 
known industry of the Indian women and under the spur of 
conditions, to bring such impressive accumulations into existence. 
As to the contents, the shells are all recent, and often fresh enough 
inside of the heap to preserve more or less of their delicate colors. 
There is no trace of any discontinuity or superposition. The 
work materials, the archeology, are uniform in the essentials, 
and the culture except in local developments or adaptations 
and possibly a few introductions from the south, corresponds to 
that of the more northern tribes at the time of discovery. 

The burial mounds speak even more plainly. In the first 
place a large proportion of the hitherto explored mounds, on the 
west coast evidently the majority, have been found to contain 
articles of white man's introduction, which may in general be 
taken as a safe indication that they were not finished or even 
constructed until after the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
And the remaining mounds with their burials are not enough in 
number to denote more than a moderate period of occupation. 
A few centuries before the coming of the whites would suffice. 

At this point the question obtrudes itself whether the mound- 
building Indians of the peninsula may not have been preceded 
by people who did not build mounds, and buried in the ground. 
There is no archeological evidence of such an occupation. Inland 
and perhaps in favorable spots even along the coasts occasional 
isolated burials are found in the ground. But the examination 



70 Ales Hrdlicka 



of the remains has shown invariably either some unsolvable but 
relatively trivial ambiguity, or just the ordinary Indian. On 
the keys and most of the coast, the swamps, mangroves and 
other conditions would at any time have made the digging of a 
grave exceedingly difBcult if not impossible, and therefore the 
burial mounds here may safely be regarded as an index of the 
population, the more so as not a few of them contain secondary 
mass burials of remains of bodies that were brought to the 
mound from wherever they may have lain temporarily. All 
that may be said in this connection, therefore, is that if any people 
have preceded the mound and shell-heap population in Florida, 
they must have been few in numbers, of similar culture and of 
Indian derivation. 

So far as the peopling of Florida is concerned there appears 
to be no alternative therefore to the conclusion that it was a 
relatively late event in the peopling of the continent, and one 
without much consequence. That before being peopled, parts 
of the peninsula may have been the hunting ground of parties of 
aborigines from farther north is quite possible. The lateness of 
actual peopling of the land may well have been due to its plagues 
of mosquitoes, other insects and reptiles, with its meagre fitness 
for agriculture, and under- rather than over-population of the 
neighboring mainland regions. Whence the eventual population 
was derived will be shown by the comparison of its skeletal 
remains, though many other considerations point north and 
northwest. It never reached great numerical, cultural or 
political importance. Due to war, disease and deportation it 
has long since completely disappeared, though its traces may 
yet be discoverable among the Everglade Seminoles. 

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 

As to the physical characteristics of the Florida population at 
the advent of the whites, there are only a small number of 



Anthropology of Florida 71 

references, and these are of little if any value. Cabeza de Vaca,' 
writing of his trip to Florida with Narvaez in 1527, reports the 
Floridians to be "wonderfully well built, spare, very strong and 
very swift," adding that "being so tall and going about nude 
they look like giants from a distance." Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon 
and Le Moyne each speak of having seen giant-like caciques,* 
the former adding, for good measure, that in the case of his 
cacique the giantism had been produced artificially by the 
Indians. These and similar reports on the Muskhogees, the 
Indians of South Carolina, etc., influenced more than one sub- 
sequent author, among whom no less keen a critic than Brinton, 
who in his "Floridian Peninsula" (p. 171), speaking of skeletons 
from a mound on Long Key, Sarasota Bay, reports of having 
been assured "by an intelligent gentleman of Manatee" that 
some of these "were of astonishing size and must have belonged 
to men 7 or 8 feet in height"; which statement, Brinton adds, "is 
not so incredible as it may appear at first sight," quoting some 
other reports of that nature from other parts of the continent. 
And the "giant" and "eight-foot" skeleton is to this day the 
almost stereotyped feature of many an amateur report of a find 
of skeletal remains from Florida as well as other parts of the 
country. All these reports on the Floridians as well as other 
Indians, it may be said once for all, are exaggerations. 

There are in addition to the above a few references to the 
color and general appearance of the people, from which little 
can be made out except that the color was darker in the south. 

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 

The above few references make it plain that scientific knowl- 
edge of the physical characteristics of the Floridian natives has 



• Naufragios de Alvar Nuiiez Cabeza de Vaca, etc., Historiadores primitives de Indias, 
Madrid, 1858, 1, 517. 

» See Ecker (A.). Arch.f. Anthrop., 1877, x, 1 12 et seq. 



72 Ales Hrdlicka 



been but little benefited by travellers and historians; and as will 
be seen shortly, it has not been advanced much beyond that by 
trained observers. This notwithstanding the fact that so many 
burial mounds and shell-heaps — which latter also occasionally 
contain burials — are disseminated over the peninsula, and that 
most of these perhaps have already been explored or at least dug 
into by amateur collectors. In addition; a series of the shell 
heaps have been partly or completely removed for road-making, 
revealing now and then human skeletons, while other mounds 
haA^e been partly washed away in storms or ploughed over, 
disclosing burials. All this has resulted in the discovery of very 
considerable quantities of skeletal remains of the Indians who 
once peopled the peninsula, but due in part to the mostly poor 
state of preservation of these remains, but mainly to lack of 
sufficient interest in the bones or a lack of knowledge as to what 
to do with these, the larger number by far of such remains have 
been lost or have reached our collections in a more or less frag- 
mentary condition. Added to this may be the fact that the 
southern portion of the peninsula is still but thinly peopled and 
presents many natural obstacles to exploration, due to which it 
has received much less attention by archeologists than parts 
further north and remains almost unrepresented in our collections 
so far as skeletal material is concerned. 

The total number of better preserved Florida crania now in 
scientific collections may be estimated at a little over 300, 
besides which there are, particularly in the U. S. National 
Museum, numerous single parts of skeleton and many fragments. 
Of this material a small series is in Germany, the rest being 
preserved in Washington, Philadelphia, Boston and New York. 
These remains have been partly studied and reported upon as 
follows : 

In 1871, in the Fourth Annual Report of the Peabody 
Museum (pp. 12, 13-18), Jeffries Wyman briefly describes and 



Anthropology of Florida 73 

gives essential measurements of 18 more or less imperfect 
skulls from a small sand mound a few miles from Cedar Keys, in 
the northern part of the west coast of the peninsula. Dr. 
Wyman's brief account of these specimens reads: 

"The burials were all of the rudest kind. No indications of 
approximate age of the mound were found, nor could information 
with regard to its history be obtained. The trees growing upon 
the mound were none of them more than half a century old. 
The bones were all greatly decayed by the destruction of the 
organic matter, and it was only with the greatest care that they 
could be removed without injury or even complete destruction. 
When dried they acquired greater firmness, but could only be 
preserved and handled after being immersed in gelatine. 

"The capacity of the skulls is 1375 cc, or nearly 84 cubic 
inches, and is greater than that of the mound crania. The foramen 
magnum is quite far back, its index being .374, very nearly the 
same as that of the crania just referred to, but there are no signs 
whatever of distortion. They are remarkable for massiveness and 
thickness. The average thickness through the parietal bones in 
eight of them amounting to 10.5 mm. or 0.42 inch, or almost 
double the usual thickness, and in this respect they contrast 
very strikingly with skulls from the mounds, as they also do in 
the general roughness of the surfaces for muscular attachments on 
the hinder part of the head. 

"The skulls are quite heavy, but in consequence of the 
destruction of the bones of the face in most of them, the whole 
weight could be had in a single instance only. This happens to 
be the heaviest of the series, weighing 995 grams, and notwith- 
standing the loss of its organic matter is heavier than any of the 
300 skulls of various races in our collection." 

In 1875 Jeffries Wyman, in his larger report on the "Fresh 
Water Shell Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida,"' gives 

' Fourth Memoir, Peabody Acad. Sc, 8vo., Salem, Mass., 1875. 



74 



Ales Hrdlicka 



Crania from Cedar Keyes, Florida, Reported by Jeffries Wyman* 


Length of Occipital 


£■2 

■v — ^t 


GO 

o 


■♦ 


Length of Parietal 


^7i 


oo 
O 


o 


Length of Frontal 


E2 




CO 


Longitudinal Arch 


S^ 






Occipital Arch 


2o- 


r-; 

c5 




Parietal Arch 


II 


o 
to 




Frontal Arch 


CO 


o 
?! 


oo 


Index of Foramen Magnum 






^ 

§ 


Index of Height 






1 


Index of Breadth 


Si 


•o 


s 


Breadth of Frontal 


2"» 


CO 


oo 

o 


Height 








Breadth 




CO 




Length 




VIS 


oo 


Circumference 


gs 


o 

oo 


O 


Capacity 




o 






c 


E 

3 

B 


3 

s 



Anthropology of Florida 75 

brief notes on various skeletal remains from the mounds along the 
river, including a description, with measurements, of a skull 
from the Osceola Mound. As this skull was damaged through 
an injury the measurements are of no value. Special attention 
is given to the flattening of the tibia (platycnemy). 

In 1878 brief observations with the principal measurements 
on 20 skulls and a few other parts of the skelton, derived from 
the same mound at Cedar Keys from which came Wyman's 
material, were published by Ecker.i Ecker notes that a number 
of the specimens show artificial deformation, but mistakes this 
for the "macrocephalic" or Aymara type. He further calls 
attention to the thickness of some of the skulls and also to their 
height. The cephalic index ranges from 74.7 to 89.4, the majority 
(12) being above 80; but no allowance or elimination has been 
made for or on account of the deformation. Influenced by the 
apparent size of the skulls together with their thickness, strong 
muscular attachments and size of the lower jaw, Ecker regret- 
tably adheres to the fallacy that the people whom these remains 
represent must have been of "Herculean" proportions, in sup- 
port of which he cites Brinton and other authors. On this basis 
he also concludes that the people to whom these remains belonged 
were in all probability the same that were met in these localities 
by the first whites. And he falls into another error in con- 
sidering these people as different from a "much older" popu- 
lation that constructed the shell heaps. The article is a good 
example of how dangerous it is even for men of calibre to 
generalize from insufficient material and to take for facts the 
exaggerations of "reliable persons", with the errors of preceding 
authors. 

In 1880 George A. Otis in his "List of the Specimens in the 
Anatomical Section of the United States Army Medical Museum" 

' Ecker (A.). Zur Kenntniss des Korperbaues friiherer Einwohner der Halbinsel Florida. 
Arch.f. Anthrop.. 1878, x, 101-114, 3 pi. 



76 Ales Hrdlicka 



gives a few measurements on a series of Florida skulls; but as 
the measurements are known to have been taken under cir- 
cumstances which make it impossible to give them full reliance, 
the data are of but little account. Since then these skulls, 
originally from the Smithsonian Institution, have been retrans- 
ferred to the U. S. National Museum and form part of the 
material made use of for the report of the present writer. 

In 1896, Harrison Allen published a memoir on "Crania from 
the Mounds of the St. John's River, Florida."' Regrettably the 
report is limited to 5 skulls, the only ones "found in sufficiently 
good condition to describe" out of 33 crania "collected by Mr. 
Clarence B. Moore from prehistoric Indian graves in Florida"; 
the bulk of the memoir being given to measurements and des- 
scriptions of skulls from other parts of the north American 
continent. Also some of the measurements and parts of the 
nomenclature, taken after Meigs, are not those in general use to- 
day, which makes them somewhat difficult to follow. But the 
engravings are excellent, following in size and style those of 
Morton's "Crania Americana." For comparison, Allen gives a 
series of measurements, the first ever published, on skulls of 
Seminoles, besides those on crania of other Indians, and gives 
original studies on teeth, jaws, the malar bone, the nasal index 
and other particulars. 

As all the crania from Florida in the collections of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, including those 
seen by Harrison Allen, have been re-examined and measured by 
the writer, there is no use of quoting Allen's data, and he has 
formulated no concise deductions. Accepting the views of 
Bartram and Jones^ that "at least some of the Indians of Florida, 



• 7. M. Nat. Sc, Philadelphia, 4°, 367-448, pi. xlix-lxx. 

' Bartram (Wm.). Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, etc., Philadelphia, 
1791, Lxjndon, 1792. Jones (Chas. C, Jr.). Antiquities of the Southern Indians, particularly 
of the Georgia tribes, New York, 1873. 



Anthropology of Florida 11 



after the settlement of the Atlantic coast by the Europeans, em- 
braced the Seminoles and remnants of tribes of Georgia which 
had been driven into the peninsula by conquest of their lands 
above the Savannah River by the whites," and also that "the 
Seminoles were of the same stock with the Indians who occupied 
elsewhere the land between the Mississippi River and the sea- 
coast," Allen regards it as probable therefore "that the skulls 
of the Moore series were of the same stock called by Jones 'Mus- 
chogee,' a probability which is strengthened by the statement of 
Bartram regarding the large stature of the males and the small 
stature of the females of Muschogee people. The most casual 
observer of the Moore series will be struck with the disparity 
in the size of the male and female skulls." This last unaccount- 
able statement, it may be remarked at once, is not sustained by 
later studies on the collections. 

Of the skulls in the Morton collection little is known, accord- 
ing to Allen, "beyond the fact that they were for the most part 
collected in Florida during or about the time of the Seminole 
war. Some of them may be from distant tribes which had been 
driven south, but it is improbable that they belong to other than 
members of the Muschogee group. That the Moore series differs 
notably from the skulls marked Seminole is of considerable 
interest. But the entire number of specimens examined is too 
small to make any broad deductions." 

In 1897 Frank Hamilton Gushing published his "Preliminary 
Report on the Exploration of Ancient Key-Dweller Remains on 
the Gulf Coast of Florida,^ and in it (p. 119) he mentions two 
series of skulls collected by him on the west coast of the peninsula, 
one north of Tampa Bay and one at Marco Key among the most 
northern of the Ten Thousand Islands. In this report also are 
(105 et seq.) two noteworthy discussions on the old dwellers of 
Florida by the foremost students of such matters at that time, 



• Proc. Amer. Phitos. Soc, 1897, xxxv, 120 pp. 



78 Ales Hrdlicka 



Brinton and Putnam. Parts of these discussions will be well 
worth quoting in these connections, particularly as they are 
rather hidden in the original. 

Brinton, the author of the well-known "History, Tribes and 
Antiquities of the Floridian Peninsula,"' reviews briefly the 
history and ethnography, as then known, of the territory; ex- 
presses the belief that the people of the west coast may have 
spoken a dialect of the Choctaw (Muskhogean), that their culture 
pointed in the main in the same direction, and that while there 
may have been slight contacts with the south there is no evidence 
of a Carib or Arawak origin of the Floridians. 

Professor Putnam referred in particular to a series of skulls 
collected by Gushing, though in some misapprehension as to 
their location. His truly noteworthy remarks follow: "Mr. 
Cushing's collection includes a large number of human skulls 
which I have had the pleasure of seeing in the museum today. 
I am much interested to note that these skulls are of the same 
type as those found in the sand mounds in Florida. The first of 
this type I ever saw came from the sand mounds around Cedar 
Keys and were brought to notice by the late Prof. Jeffries 
Wyman. Mr. Clarence B, Moore has found this type in the 
sand mounds of eastern Florida. The same general type has 
been found throughout northern Florida, Georgia, Alabama and 
through the region extending towards the Cumberland valley 
in Tennessee; also westward through the Pueblo region and in 
Central America. It is the general brachycephalic skull; not 
only brachycephalic but decidedly rounded, with more or less 
artificial flattening of the frontal and occipital regions. I have 
regarded this type of skull as belonging to the southern or 
southwestern peoples of North America. I believe that this 
type of skull is the type of the people who first settled, so far 
as we know, in Central America and on the shores of Peru and 



Anthropology of Florida 79 

northern South America; that in all probability this people 
extended eastward, coming across the Isthmus through the 
Central American region and extending along the Gulf of Mexico 
and over into Florida, and finally, judging from the evidence 
that Mr. Gushing has presented tonight, being driven on to these 
keys. In fact, I should consider it probable that the line of mi- 
gration was directly opposite to this one which has been sug- 
gested. That is, I believe it more likely that this was a people 
who, having had an early home in the Central American region, 
extended around the Gulf of Mexico, rather than a people who 
came from South America to the Florida Keys and then spread 
into Florida and westward." 

To which Mr. Cushing answered in part as follows: "If the lin- 
guistic evidence relative to connections either toward the north or 
toward the south, of the ancient key dwellers, is thus far so scant 
as to be inconclusive, this is to a certain extent also the case 
with the evidence afforded by the human remains we collected. 
In justice to Dr. Putnam I must state here that the series of 
skulls in my collections, examined by him, were not the key- 
dweller skulls. They were skulls derived from the Anclote 
region, and like those he mentions as previously collected by Dr. 
Wyman and Dr. Clarence B. Moore were exhumed from sand 
mounds. The true key-dweller skulls found by us in the muck 
beds at Marco and in the bone pit on Sanybel Island, number 
only 13,' but they are pronounced to be, by Dr. Harrison Allen, 
who is studying them preparatory to full publication,^ uniformly 
distinct from those of more northerly and easterly parts of 
Florida. In the first place, the occipital foramina of these 
remarkable skulls are abnormally large and remain open in even 
the most mature of them — a characteristic seen in only one 



' The Sanybel Island is in Charlotte Harbor. It appears that there may have been only 
two skulls from Key Marco; and today there seem to remain but a few unimportant specimens 
from Sanybel, preserved in the Wistar Institute, where they were seen by the author. 

• Harrison Allen's notes on the specimens and illustrations so far could not be located. 



80 Ales Hrdlicka 



cranium of our northern series. In the second place, a curious 
feature of all these key-dweller skulls is that in no case is the 
occiput flattened. Finally, they are found to be more nearly of 
the Antillean type, judged, it is true, by only one or two specimens 
of the latter examined by Dr. Allen, than of the northern Indian 
type." 

The above records are all that we have on the physical 
anthropology of the old Floridians or their remains, with the 
exception of the line of publications that deals with the question 
of man's antiquity on the peninsula. The latter will be found 
resumed and critically examined in Bulletins 33 (1907) and 66 
(1918) of the Bureau of American Ethnology. These reports, 
however, while showing that there is no substantial ground for 
any geological antiquity of man in the peninsula, contribute but 
little to the anthropology of Florida in general. But their prepa- 
ration resulted in the several visits of the author to different parts 
of the State, in the gathering of new evidence as well as skeletal 
material, and eventually in the present study, the object of 
which is to bring to date our knowledge of the peopling and 
peoples of Florida. It will be shown that these problems are 
probably simpler than may be anticipated, that linguistic evi- 
dence has once more proven insufficient, and that observations 
of untrained men regarding the physical characteristics of a 
people are wholly unreliable. 



NEW OBSERVATIONS 

THE present study of skeletal material from Florida in- 
cluded that at the U. S. National Museum, together 
with all that preserved at the Academy of Natural 
Sciences and the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia. It 
comprises the Clarence B. Moore, The Hamilton Gushing,' and 
the author's collections, besides individual specimens from 
other sources. The small series of skulls previously described 
by Harrison Allen have been re-examined. The distribution 
of the utilized skulls is as follows: 

CRANIA EXAMINED 

West St. John's East Southeast Seminoles 

Coast River Coast and South 

Male (121) 78 16 11 5 11 

Female (52) 33 7 7 3 2 

Totals (173) Ill 23 18 8 13 

The above represents only normal adult skulls, unaffected by 
artificial deformation which was practiced more or less in different 
parts of the peninsula; and not to complicate matters needlessly 
only the principal measurements and observations will be 
reported. A large number of other more or less deformed skulls 
passed through the writer's hands, but the notes on them would 
be of little value in present connection. In addition there were 
examined a quantity of other Florida skeletal material than 
skulls, and all the available crania from neighboring regions. 

Deformation. — The majority of Floridian skulls show arti- 
ficial moulding. There is but one type of this: the fron to- 
occipital flattening; but in instances the frontal parts have been 
so little affected that the occipital compression alone is percep- 
tible. 

'A vain search was made for the few skulls believed to have been collected by Cushing 
at Marco. 




Ke.West 



vcir. 



Figure 2. Map of Florida Showing Localities from which Skeletal Material was Examined 



Anthropology of Florida 85 

The degree and frequency of the deformation differ from 
locality to locality, both diminishing in general, it appears, from 
north to south. The "Aymara" type of deformation was un- 
known and the one or two authors who assumed otherwise were 
in error. Extreme forms of flattening are absent, and on the 
whole it is evident that while the practice was wide-spread in 
Florida, it was rather lax and not seldom neglected or given up. 

The same type of head deformation had existed in the terri- 
tories now covered by Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana 
and Arkansas. It was also the type of deformation practiced by 
the stone grave people of Tennessee, and traces of it are occasion- 
ally found beyond the boundaries of these states. Its centre of 
intensity was evidently in the territory now covered by Alabama 
and Tennessee with adjacent parts of Georgia and Mississippi. 

The same type of deformation was general among the Caribs 
in the Bahamas, Cuba, Haiti, Porto Rico, Jamaica, etc., as well 
as among the tribes of parts of Central America, in Yucatan, and 
along portions at least of eastern Mexico; strangely it was also 
and is to this day practiced in the northwesternmost parts of 
the United States among the Indians of the Columbia River 
basin, but nowhere else in North America. In South America 
it was nearly limited to the upper two-thirds of the western coast. 

A deep-rooted complex procedure of this nature implies 
necessarily close connections of the ancestry of the Florida and 
related Indians in one or another of these directions, probably 
even derivation; but the time is not ripe enough as yet for the 
following of this clue to definite conclusions. 

Massiveness. — Many of the Florida skulls and lower jaws as 
well as the bones of the skeleton impress one as perceptibly 
stouter and especially heavier than other skeletal remains of 
Indians. So far as some of the individual skulls and jaws are 
concerned nothing equally massive is, in fact, known from any 



86 Ales Hrdlicka 



part of the continent except under abnormal conditions. The 
fact, we have seen, has been noted by Wyman as well as Ecker, 
and is also accentuated by Brooks in his report on some skulls 
and bones of the Indians of the Bahamas, who evidently belonged 
to the same type of people.' 

The stoutness of the skulls was apparent on most of the 
material that passed through the writer's hands in the present 
study. The lower parts of the parietal 1 cm. above and along 
the squamous suture in Florida skulls measured often 6 to 8 mm., 
which is approximately 2 to 3 mm. more than in the whites and 
1.5 mm. more than in other Indians. The occipital crests, the 
mastoids, the zygomse in males are often heavier, the facial 
parts more massive, the lower jaws in general thicker and larger 
than in most other parts of America. The features in the living 
must have been correspondingly strong, which, together with a 
good height of the body, accounts doubtless for the reports by 
early travellers as to the size and strength of the people, as it 
accounts for most of the reports of Florida "giants" which are 
reaching the Press and our Institutions now from amateur 
explorers. 

The explanation of these conditions lies on one hand in a 
sturdy stock to start with, and on the other in a plentiful supply 
and the nature of food. The weight of the skulls and bones is, 
however, not always due to increased thickness, but to mineraliza- 
tion. Outside perhaps of parts of Argentina there is no other 
large part of the American continent where mineralization of 
bones is as rapid, as general and also as varied as in Florida. The 
sands full of shell detritus, the shell mounds, the muck, the brown 
waters of Florida, all favor infiltration of bones with lime salts 
as well as other mineral constituents; in other words, a relatively 
rapid fossilization. 



' Brooks (W. K.). On the Lucayan Indians. Mem. Nat. Ac. Sc, 1889, iv, PI. 2, 215-222. 



Anthropology of Florida 87 

In our collection there are human bones from Florida that 
are almost so much silica, limestone, or iron ore, while one 
skeleton preserved in the U. S. National Museum is wholly- 
embedded in black, hard manganese sandstone; and there are, 
as already remarked, few bones from the older mounds or shell 
heaps that do not show some mineralization. It is these super- 
added mineral constituents which account in the main for the 
extraordinary weight of many of the skulls and bones from the 
peninsula, and it is the additional weight which augments and 
at times as shown by control measurements, may even be wholly 
responsible for, the impression of massiveness. 

As to the really increased thickness of some of the crania and 
some of the bones there are, as already implied, reasons to 
believe that these conditions were not wholly due to muscular 
strength, though plainly the people and especially the men were 
sturdy, but that they had considerable to do with the diet of 
these Indians. This consisted very largely of fish and especially 
molluscs, both rich in phosphates. The generally more or less 
mineralized water, too, may have contributed. Whether directly 
or indirectly, a rich life-long diet with increased intake of 
bone-forming materials, could hardly fail to affect the skeleton. 
It is these agencies in the writer's belief that are largely re- 
sponsible for the massiveness of some of the Florida skeletons. 
As will be shown later, people of the same physical stock else- 
where inland, living on a substantially different diet, while also 
strong and of good stature, had no such thick skulls or bones 
as some of the Floridians. 

Disease. — Next to massiveness the Florida bones from some 
localities impress one with the commonness of disease. This con- 
sists essentially of inflammatory processes, periostitis and osteo- 
periostitis, particularly on the tibia and other long bones. These 
lesions suggest strongly a syphilitic origin and it would seem 



88 Ales Hrdlicka 



that here if anywhere the problem of the presence of pre-Colum- 
bian syphilis in America could be settled. But even here the 
evidence is not conclusive. In the first place there is as yet no 
decisive proof that the lesions in question are syphilitic, and if 
the disease was syphilis, as seems likely, then all that can be said 
positively is that it was prevalent and of a destructive form, 
as judged by the osseous lesions, ajter the Indian came into con- 
tact with the Spaniards, for in many of the mounds with the 
diseased bones are found articles of white man's introduction. 
Whether there are any burial mounds in which these bone 
lesions are completely absent has not yet been determined. All 
that can be said is that there are localities in Florida from which 
no diseased bones have been collected. It is strange that no 
mention of the presence of venereal disease is made in any of the 
accounts of the peninsula; but the subject of disease has received 
no attention in these poor records. 

Unity of Type. — The third most marked impression made 
upon the student by the Floridian skeletal material and par- 
ticularly by the crania, is the similarity of type. The mass of 
the remains from all parts of the peninsula represented in our 
collections appear to be clearly those of one well characterized 
physical strain of people. The more northern parts of the west 
coast, the Tampa to Charlotte Bay region, the St. John's River, 
the older parts of the east coast population, all show the same 
prevailing type of skulls, stature, robustness, form; and measure- 
ments only confirm this impression. 

Yet here and there is a skull that differs from the rest, 
shows different outlines, or is in some important respects beyond 
the ordinary limits of variation; and the proportion of such 
specimens rises in some spots — especially it seems in the east 
and towards the south. But there is seldom any sharp line of 
distinction. In general the odd types connect by imperceptible 
gradations with the more regular forms, indicating admixture. 



Anthropology of Florida 89 

And the signs point to a long lasting admixture, though with the 
odd type as the more recent comer. All of this will be made 
clearer by the measurements. It will now suffice to say that, as 
the results of visual observation on Florida skeletal material, 
we obtain the rather simple impression of one well marked 
prevalent and older physical type of people; and of a strain 
smaller in numbers, not far distant in stature and other features, 
though slightly less robust, coming gradually somewhat later 
and until fairly recently, admixing here more, here less with the 
older type, and in some localities even remaining fairly pure. 
There is no evidence of there having been anything before the 
older of these two types; and there is no sign of any other in- 
trusion outside of the second contingent. 

Our task will be to single out and identify if possible these two 
peoples. 

THE SK.ULL 

The total number of undeformed or nearly undeformed 
Florida skulls found available for measurement was, as stated, 
173, of which 121 males and 52 females; but many of these 
specimens lacked the facial or basal parts. 

The material ranged from specimens enclosed in solidified 
coquina, and the characteristic dark more or less fossilized 
skulls from some of the more northern mounds, to the relatively 
fresh-looking specimens from the shell-heaps of Charlotte 
Harbor; and the visual impression even more than the measure- 
ments spoke for the presence of one prevalent, older, round- 
headed, with one subsidiary and on the whole fresher, more 
oblong-headed type. Yet these types occurred nowhere clearly 
separated, but were well commingled — unless it were in some 
spots in the south, from which, however, the collections as yet 
are too scarce to allow of any definite conclusion. 



90 Ales Hrdlicka 



The blackish, brown or grey discoloration of the skulls and 
bones, with their frequent above-average massiveness accentu- 
ated by the increased weight through mineralization, gives the 
older Florida skeletal remains a characteristic aspect which 
makes it easy to tell them apart from those of other regions and 
tends to create an impression of a different variety, a different 
population than that of the ordinary Indian. Only the fresher 
material looks like that of other Indians. But detailed observa- 
tion and especially measurements soon do away with any illusion 
in these respects. 

Another deception that on actual test soon vanished, was 
that of extraordinary stature, not to speak of giantism. Strong 
and big men there were, but measurements of the long bones 
failed to show a single six-footer even, though judging from the 
averages there may have been occasionally such individuals in 
the population. 

Descriptive Features of the Skull. — The generally defective 
state of preservation of the Florida material makes anything like 
a systematic detailed description out of the question; and what 
there is does not present, outside of the perceptibly greater 
massiveness in many of the specimens, anything which would 
not be common also to other Indians of related types. 

The vault, looked at from above, is in a large majority of 
cases a shorter or longer ovoid, approaching in some of the broad- 
est heads to a short elliptical or rounder form (PI. XII, pi. XIV). 
The sagittal region is only slightly to moderately raised, not keel 
shaped. The forehead ranges from rather low to medium, as is 
usual in Indians. The supra-orbital ridges, as well as the occipital 
crest, may be heavy in the males, but in no case were they 
observed to form a complete arch. In females the supra-orbital 
ridges are generally moderate to small, the occipital crests 
absent. 




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PLATE XI. Side View of Skulls Shown on PLATES VIE and VHE 




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Anthropology of Florida 91 

The facial traits impress one by the strength of the zygomae, 
malars and dental arch; the lower jaw by its general strength 
and size. In a few instances the lower jaw is truly enormous 
(PI. XVII, pi. XVIII). 

The orbits are variable, ranging from mesoseme to 
megaseme. The nose, moderately raised and moderately broad, 
is frequently rather long. The nasal spine is generally low; the 
lower borders of the nasal aperture range from fairly well marked 
to dull. Alveolar prognathism is somewhat more marked than 
in whites, as usual in Indians. Teeth are meso- to macrodont, 
typically Indian. 

The mastoids are about as the average in Indians, occasion- 
ally somewhat heavier. The features of the base of the skull in 
general are heavier than usual, but otherwise typically Indian. 

The more rounded skulls on the one hand and the more 
oblong ones on the other, show each a considerable uniformity 
of type; furthermore, except in the relative length and breadth 
of the vault and in the lesser general massiveness of the more 
oblong skulls, there are no great differences and no real separa- 
tion between the two varieties, the space being filled by inter- 
mediary forms. It is plain that, to start with, the two elements 
entering into the Florida population did not differ much in their 
facial features; and that there has been a prolonged commingling 
of the stronger older, and the newer strains, resulting in numerous 
more or less intermediary forms; though the mixture has not 
been sufficient to obliterate fully or even greatly the original two 
types. 

Measurements. — The principal measurements on the unde- 
formed Florida crania show remarkable features with which we 
have thus far been but little acquainted on this continent. In 
size of the vault the skulls compare favorably with those of other 
Indian tribes. They are both externally and internally slightly 



92 Ales Hrdlicka 



larger than those of some other Indians, but this is essentially a 
matter of bulk and stature; where those were similar the size 
of the head is similar. There were some macrocephals, also now 
and then a microcephal among the Floridians, but the mass 
of the crania show typical Indian dimensions. The 96 East- 
ern States crania (north of the Carolinas) reported upon by the 
writer in 1916,' gave the average cranial module or mean 

/•T I TJ I tJN 

diameter -^^ — ~!" — - of 15.54 cm., while 76 male Florida 

skulls give 15.52 cm.; the average module of 100 female eastern 
crania was 14.78, that of 34 Florida skulls of the same sex 14.93 
cm; and the capacity agreement is similar. Nineteen male 
skulls from Arkansas and Louisiana gave the module of 15.49 
cm. with a capacity of 1456 c.c. — 11 Florida skulls of the same 
sex^ in which the capacity could be determined gave respectively 
15.63 cm. and 1478 c.c. for the same measurements; or taking 
the largest series of our eastern skulls, the 30 female crania from 
New Jersey,' we find the average module of 14.70 cm. with the 
mean capacity of 1306 c.c, while 7 Florida female skulls in which 
the capacity could well be measured gave a module of 14.85 
cm. and capacity of 1318 c.c. Whatever excess in general there 
appears in favor of Florida may be attributed in all probability 
either to insufficiency of the numbers of specimens available for 
comparison, or to an excess of size and weight of the Floridians. 

The outstanding feature of the Florida crania appears not in 
size but in the measurements relating to their form. The skulls 
are both absolutely and relatively very high. Curiously, more- 
over, this applies to both of the types of skull occurring in the 
peninsula, the rounded as well as the more oblong. 



' Physical Anthropology of the Lenape or Delawares and of the Eastern Indians in Gen- 
eral. Bull. 62, Bur. Am. Ethnol., 8°, Washington, 1916, 118. 
' Leaving out two exceptional macrocephalic specimens. 
'Bull. 62, B. A. E., 119. 



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PLATE XIII. Side View of a Male (upper) and a Female (lower) Florida Skull of the Rounded 

Type 




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Anthropology of Florida 93 

This characteristic is so marked and universal in the peninsula 
as to constitute a prominent mark which should prove of much 
value in tracing the origin and relations of the population. 

The feature is best expressed by the Mean Height Index 

/ ■LJ \ 

7=r-f ^-f^ — ; — =rT-. Advocated independently by the writer 

(Mean of L + B) ^ ' ^ 

first in 1916,' this Index is proving of much value in diflferentia- 

tion of type and will probably become a permanent feature in 

Craniometry. 

The conditions, taking all the Florida crania together, are 

shown in the following tables: p, 94 et seq. 

An effort to separate the two types of skulls, the older more 
rounded and the evidently more recent and more oblong, by 
measurements, meets with only a partial success due to the 
proximity of the two forms in many respects. Visual observa- 
tions are here more efficient. They make it plain that the 
rounded type extended its normal range of variation from a 
high brachy- into mesocephaly, while on the other hand the 
more oblong type, apparently sub-dolicho- to mesocephalic in 
its pure state, reached occasionally into sub-brachycephaly. 
But the mixed forms, as has already been stated, bridge over the 
separation. 

The tables following p. 98 show some of the differences as well 
as the overlapping of the two types. The oblong heads appear to 
be both longer as well as narrower than those of the more rounded 
variety, and they are both absolutely and relatively even higher 
than the former, but in size of the facial and nasal measurements 
the two types show much parallelism. 

A good fortune was to find in the collections eleven male 
skulls of the Seminoles together, the measurements of which 



» Bull. 62, B. A. E., 116. 



94 



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PLATE XVII. Extraordinary Lower Jaw from the Florida Mounds — Full Size 




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PLATE XVIII. Extraordinary Lower Jaws from the Florida Mounds — Full Size 



Anthropology of Florida 



95 



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96 Ales Hrdlicka 



are here given for comparison. The data will be discussed later; 
but it will be seen at a glance that the Seminole crania show a 
considerable resemblance to the oblong Florida skulls of older 
extraction. This relation helps materially to sustain the distinct- 
ness of the oblong cranial type of the mounds and shell heaps 
from the more rounded form, and indicates strongly where lie 
the relations and possibly derivation of the former. 

In seriation (table p. 97) and in the more detailed graphic 
outline of the distribution of the cephalic index in Florida 
(Fig. 3) there is noticeable a tendency towards a double 
grouping, one in mesocephaly and one in brachycephaly, which 
also supports the deduction of the presence in mixture of two 
separate forms of skull. 

The mean height index, which may well be studied in the 
males, shows a considerable range of distribution, with marked 
aggregation between 86 and 88 or more broadly between 85 
and 89 (p. 100). The seriation gives nowhere more than one mode, 
indicating that in this respect the more rounded and the more 
oblong types of skulls are much alike (Fig. 4). Taken separately 
the more oblong skulls are seen to be even slightly higher, and 
that both relatively and absolutely, than those of the rounded 
type, which is a fact of some importance (table p. 95). 

After having reached satisfying evidence of the existence in 
the mounds and shell heaps of Florida of two distinct though 
admixed cranial forms representing two component strains of 
population, the next point of importance was to determine if 
possible the original distribution of the rounded and the oblong 
skulls over the peninsula. 

During the examination it soon became obvious that the 
oblong forms of skull were relatively more frequent in certain 
eastern and in the southern parts of the peninsula, than else- 



Anthropology of Florida 



97 



Florida Mound and Shell-heap Skulls (All) — Distribution of Cranial Index 


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Cranial Index of Crania (all) 
from Florida Mounds and Shell-Heaps 

77.6-80 80.1-82.5 82.6-85 



85.1-87.5 



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= Females (50 " ) 

Fig. 3b 



ANTHROPOLOGY OF FlORIDA 99 

where; but unfortunately these parts are much less well repre- 
sented in our collections than the regions further west and north, 
which makes it hard to draw valid conclusions, and to say 
whether the oblong type was anywhere present exclusively. 

In order to obtain as much light on the subject as possible, 
the available cranial material was divided into several groups, 
corresponding to the traditionally and otherwise most impor- 
tant parts of the territory. These regions are respectively the 
West Coast or the Caloosa country; the St. John's River and the 
remaining region of the Timucua tribes; the East Coast; and the 
Southeast with the South. The data may be consulted in the fol- 
lowing tables which give us it is seen several valuable indications. 

The West Coast and the St. John's River regions are, what- 
ever linguistic or other differences there may have been between 
them, from the standpoint of physical anthropology practically 
identical. Both show the presence and influence of the oblong 
heads, but the type is substantially that of the old brachycephals. 
The East Coast also is prevalently the same, but along this coast 
and from Lake Okechobee southward there becomes apparent a 
greater infusion of the more oblong high type of skulls, and there 
are spots where this type may even have been present alone. 

Facial Proportions. — The facial measurements of the Florida 
skulls show, too, some points of special interest, though in general 
representing well in every particular the Indian type. 

The measurements show the face to be both high and rather 
broad; the relative proportions, as expressed by the indices, are, 
however, quite usual. The breadth of the face is to that of the 
skull as approximately 97.5 to 100 in the males and as 96 to 100 
in the females — for Indians not very unusual proportions. 

In conformity with the high face we have also a rather high 
nose, with medium breadth, giving in both sexes a fairly low 
nasal index. Under ordinary conditions a low or even a moderate 



100 



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Per 
Cent: 



Mean Height Index of Skulls {all) 
from Florida Mounds and Shell Heaps 

S5. 1-87.5 87.6-90 90.1-92.5 



92.6-9S 



^ 



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■=i\Iales (76 skulls) 
^Females (34 " ) 

Fig. 4 



Anthropology of Florida 



101 



Undeformed Florida Crania — Females 


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FLOR- 
IDA 



102 Ales Hrdlicka 



nasal index in tribes living so far south would strongly suggest a 
northern rather than a southern derivation, and that within not 
very far distant times, for of all features of the skull the pro- 
portions and particularly the width of the nasal aperture bear 
probably on the whole the closest relation to environmental 
conditions, more particularly heat and humidity. But the 
moderate nasal index of the Floridians is due essentially to the 
increased height of the face which affects all its parts including 
the nose. The Floridian nose must therefore be described as 
high and not narrow. 

The alveolar and facial angles, and the dimensions of the 
palate as well as those of the teeth, could be studied on account 
of the very frequent damage or absence of the facial parts on only 
a few specimens, where they showed ordinary Indian conditions; 
and the same applies to the orbits. 

An abstract of the main facial measurements together with 
their distribution is given in the following tables. 

The lower jaws from the Florida mounds deserve more than 
a passing notice; not so much from the racial standpoint, 
perhaps, but on account of the individual variation and their 
development, this last reaching in some instances truly re- 
markable proportions. 

Except in the physically weakest tribes north of Mexico, the 
Indian lower jaw averages distinctly larger and heavier in both 
sexes than that in the working classes of any American whites. 
The conditions are shown best in the second of the following three 
tables. Of the six principal dimensions of the lower jaw, in only 
one, the height of the ascending ramus — a dimension depending 
more on the length of the face than on the strength of the 
mandible — does the lower jaw of the whites come near the 
general Indian average; in all the rest of the measurements the 
Indian jaw is the larger and heavier. And the Florida lower jaws. 



Anthropology of Florida 



103 





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Ales Hrdlicka 



Seriation 


THE UPPER FACIAL INDEX {^!''^o!arPtNasionX10n\ 

V Dtam. Btzygom. max, ' 




45.1- 
47.5 


47.6- 
50 


50.1- 

52.5 


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55 


55.1- 
57.5 


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MALES (45) 
Percent: 


2 
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24.6 


10 
22.2 


1 
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Percent: 


— 


3 
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3 
27.3 


2 

18.2 


3 

27.3 


— 


— 




THE NASAL INDEX 




Below 
40 


40.1- 
42.5 


42.6- 
45 


45.1- 

47.5 


47.6- 
50 


50.1- 

52.5 


52.6- 
55 


55.1- 
57.5 


MALES (63) 
Percent 


1 
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4.S 


11 
17.S 


21 
33.4 


15 

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5 
7.9 


3 
4.8 


4 
6.3 


FEMALES (17) 
Percent: 


— 


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17.6 


1 
11.7 


2 
11.7 


7 
41.2 


3 
17.6 


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•=1. 



Anthropology of Florida 105 

together with the related Louisiana lot and with those of our 
most robust Plains tribe, the Sioux, stand in all these respects at 
the head of the Indians, and that, there are reasons to believe, 
not merely at the head of those available for comparison but 
probably of North American Indians in general. 

As to some of the individual jaws from Florida, there are 
five in the U. S. National Museum that are truly huge. Their 
measurements are given separately in the third of the tables 
that follow, but the visual impression they produce is even 
greater. There is nothing that would equal these specimens as 
a whole in the National Museum collections, except a fresh jaw of 
a Mongolian collected by the writer in 1912 at Urga.' It is 
small wonder that amateur collectors in Florida finding now and 
then such a jaw, attribute it to "giants." As a matter of fact 
none of these specimens proceed, so far as can be determined, 
from men of any extraordinary stature, but doubtless their 
owners were powerful individuals. 

Large, powerful individual jaws are met with also in the 
mound remains from Arkansas and Louisiana and over the rest 
of the region occupied once by the strong southern brachy- 
cephals. They mean powerful muscles of mastication, as well 
as abundant nourishment of the bone-forming nature, rather 
than any distinct physical type. Exceptionally strong specimens, 
though not perhaps equalling the Florida maximum, may 
occasionally be met with in other robust Indian tribes, regardless 
of their derivation. 

In one of the Florida jaws. No. 242,632 N. M., otherwise not 
massive or above the Florida average,^ the symphyseal height 
is no less than 4.95 cm. — possibly a unique proportion. The total 

>No. 278,790; D. ant. post. 8.4; d. bigon. 12.; height at symph. 4.2; h. of 1. asc. ramus 7.7; 
breath min. of asc. ram. 4.05; thickn. oppos. mid. of 2 1. mol.ir 2. cm. 

»D. a-p. 7.8;d. big. n.6; h. of I. asc. r. 7.3; br. min. of asc. r. 3.4; thickn. at 2 I. mol. 1.4 cm. 



106 



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Anthropology of Florida 



107 





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Antthropology of Florida 109 

height of the face in this case is 15.1 cm., that from the alveolar 
point to nasion 8.9 cm. — with the maximum bizygomatic 
breadth of 13.6 cm. The specimen is not acromegalic. 

Comparative. — Summarizing briefly the results of the cranial 
measurements, we see that the Florida skulls are essentially 
brachycephalic and mesocephalic, the dolichocephalic element 
being almost wholly absent; that in general they are both abso- 
lutely and relatively high; that notwithstanding their above- 
average massiveness they are of good capacity; that the face is 
both high as well as fairly broad; and that the nose is high with 
medium breadth, giving, for Indians, a fairly low nasal index. 

We have seen further that it was possible to distinguish in 
the remains two separate, though mixed and in many respects 
connecting types — the prevalent and probably on the whole 
older more round-headed, and the less frequent and evidently 
somewhat more recent to recent oblong-headed variety. The 
next problems that confront us are the determinations of the 
identity, relations and spread of these types. 

Had we ample skeletal material from all the southern States 
as well as from the Antilles and eastern Mexico, the above tasks 
would be very simple. As it is we are still far from this goal, and 
we are even poorer in measurements on the living remnants of 
the various tribes that survive in these regions. In trying to 
identify the Floridians, therefore, the anthropologist is con- 
fronted with serious difficulties. From many localities there are 
mere samplings of skeletal remains and from the larger part of 
the Antilles and practically the whole of eastern Mexico there is 
nothing whatever. And yet there are, thanks mainly to the 
assiduous labors of Mr. Clarence B. Moore and further north of 
Professor F. W. Putnam, precious collections which, with the 
relatively abundant material from the eastern and central States, 



110 Ales Hrdlicka 



as well as further westward, enable us to approach at least some 
definite conclusions. 

As to further South the material at our disposal includes some 
imperfect specimens from Cuba, even less from Santo Domingo, 
a few skulls from Jamaica and a small series of modern crania 
from Yucatan. In all these localities we meet with the same type 
of artificial cranial deformation as in Florida. All of the available 
non-deformed skulls are brachycephalic and very similar in 
many respects; but they are all less thick and robust and per- 
ceptibly smaller — proceeding from smaller people — than the 
Floridian skulls, and what differentiates them definitely from 
these is that they are all both absolutely and relatively to the 
other measurements, decidedly lower. Outside of brachycephaly 
and of the similarity of artificial deformation, there is therefore 
thus far no strong lead that would point to the derivation of 
either one of the Florida types of skulls from the southward. 

To the North and Northwest of the peninsula the indications 
are very different. A few imperfect specimens from South 
Carolina appear to show the same brachycephalic type as that 
of Florida. A little larger collection from Georgia shows the 
same type to the point of identity, including the artificial de- 
formation; and the same is true of some skulls from Alabama 
and parts of Mississippi. Due to Mr. Clarence B. Moore's 
assiduous efforts we are much more fortunate with collections 
from Arkansas and Louisiana — and a comparison of the pre- 
vailing, brachycephalic, high-skulled type of those regions shows 
an exceedingly close relation of the same with that of the 
Floridians. From Texas, regrettably, we have hardly anything 
as yet in the way of older skulls or skeletons. But there is col- 
lectively a riches of material from Tennessee, and the prevalent 
brachycephalic part of this material — in the undeformed skulls 
— shows conclusively that it also belongs to the same type as the 
main strain of Florida. 



Anthropology of Florida 



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Anthropology of Florida 113 

Tennessee and Arkansas, however, appear to represent the 
territorial limits of the type towards the North and Northwest, 
unless it survives, as seems probable, in some living offshoots 
such as a part of the Osage and the Winnebago. The eastern 
states, the Appalachians, the central states and the plains, are 
occupied by different types of Indians — in larger part by the 
dolichocephalic to mesocephalic Algonquin, in part by the low- 
vaulted Sioux and in part by the medium-high old brachycephals 
of certain portions of the Ohio mound region. 

But this is not the whole story. We have roughly traced 
here the territorial limits of the southern brachycephals, but in 
all these regions there was a sprinkling also of a high vaulted 
mesocephalic type of population. This population is plainly not 
a mere variant of the more round-headed type, and connects 
with the North. Previous studies on the tribes of the eastern 
states^ have shown not only that these tribes as a whole were 
rather high-vaulted, as is common with the oblong-headed skulls 
on the whole American continent, but also that as we proceeded 
southwards the mean height index and also the height-length 
index were gradually increasing. These records are shown on 
pages 115, 116. 

A study of the Seminole skulls from Florida shows similar 
features as the West Virginia skulls above — a general relation to 
the Algonquin type of skull, but often with somewhat increased 
breadth and generally increased height of the vault; and there 
are indications that this type was shared more or less by other 
southeastern oblong-headed people. 

It appears that this eastern cranial type, inclining gradually 
more and more to mesocephaly as well as to a high vault, reached 
eventually as far south as Florida and as far southwest as Arkan- 



' Bull. 62, B. A. E., 117, 118. 



114 Ales Hrdlicka 



sas and Louisiana. It is according to all indications identical 
not only with the Seminoles, but evidently also with the older 
more oblong-headed element of the Floridian population. It is 
a sub-type which must have belonged to a large portion of the 
Muskhogeans; and it may be defined as a transitional type 
between the more northern one of the Algonquins and the Gulf 
brachycephals. 

The Muskhogean confederacy was, according to the evidence 
we now have at hand, more than a confederacy of blood-related 
tribes. It was a confederacy of the Seminoles, Creeks, Chica- 
saws and others whose physical characteristics point more or 
less to the north, and of the Choctaws, Natchez, Alabamois and 
related tribes who belonged to a different type of people, to the 
strong southern brachycephalic stock which included also the 
bulk of the Floridians. 

It would seem from the present facts that the bulk of the 
Muskhogean people must have been derived originally from the 
more northern long-headed tribes; that they extended once well 
towards the south from the Atlantic to and beyond the Missis- 
sippi, but did not occupy, or occupied but sparsely or only in 
spots, the territory along the Gulf; and that then came a rela- 
tively strong invasion from the West or Southwest — possibly 
from Mexico — of people of a distinct type not hitherto repre- 
sented east of the Mississippi; that this current overflowed the 
Gulf states and Florida, overcame and absorbed whatever there 
may have already been there, extended as far as it could north- 
ward, and in the course of frequent warfares as well as in amical 
relations, became extensively mingled and even admixed with 
the contact tribes, admixing them to a similar extent. The 
strongest of these contact tribes formed eventually a political 
union together with the main portion of the southern stock, 
which union was the Muskhogean confederacy; and they 



60 - 



40 

Measure 

Cm. 
20 



Comparison of Floridian Brachycephals zvilh those 
in Neighboring Stales 

Mean 
C. I. H-L. I. H-B. I. H. I. F. I. F. I. Upper N. I. 



Indtces 1 1 


1 fM ! ' ' t ' ^ ! 1 1 r 


1 ' r 1 1 


f! ' 


fi i 1 M_^ 


100 




"'\ 






) 








80 




\ 











10 




L-i- . . liiii^llliiiij 

H Cran. M-N A. PC.-N B H B 

Mod. 

— Florida (69 crania) 

.- Peri-Floridian (61 " ) 

Fig. 6 



Indices 



100 



80 



60 



40 



Graphic Comparison of Oblong Crania from 
Florida Mounds and Shell Heaps, zvitk those of the Seminoles 

Mean 
C I. H-L. I. H-B. I. H. I. V. I. \. I. 

I I I i : ' ■ - 




d 



tt 



Measurements 

Cm. 

20 



10 




ti^i-t 



^ : 



A 




\"ault: L. 



H. CM. Face: H. B. Xose: H. B. 

^Oblong Crania. Florida Mounds and Shell Heaps (40) 
= Seminoles (11) 
Fig. 7 



Anthropology of Florida 



115 



Eastern and Southeastern Crania: Indians 


MALES 


Locality 


Number 

of 

Skulls 


Cranial 
Index 


Mean 

Height 

Index 


Height 

Length 

Index 


Height 

Breadth 

Index 


Maine 


6 


72.7 


83.- 


71.9 


98.8 


Eastern Canada 


14 


73.4 


84.4 


73.1 


99.7 




19 


73.5 


84.4 


73.6 


99.5 


Massachusetts 


14 


72.8 


84.6 


73.5 


101.- 


Rhode Island , 


6 


73.7 


85.3 


74.1 


1C0.5 


Connecticut 
Manhattan Island 


4 
2 


72.4 
71.7 


86.5 
87.5 


73.5 
75.1 


100.4 
104.8 


Long Island 


7 


70.7 


88.1 


74.9 


105.7 


Staten Island 


4 


71.7 


87.5 


75.2 


104.9 


New Jersey (Heye Coll.) 


4 


73.9 


83.9 


73.1 


98.9 


New Jersey (earlier) 


6 


74.6 


86.1 


75.8 


101.2 


Virginia (misc.) 


12 


75.5 


86.5 


76.2 


99.3 


Virginia (western) 


15 


75.5 


89.8 


79.- 


103.2 


Seminoles 


11 


77.- 


87.6 


77.6 


100.7 


Oblong Skulls of Florida 


40 


77.9 


88.1 78.5 


100.8 

1 



116 Ales Hrdlicka 



possibly accepted more or less the language or perhaps the main 
language of the more highly cultured southerners. 

This hypothesis would account for the occurrence of oblong 
heads approaching the Algonquian among the southern tribes, 
including the older Floridians; it would account for the per- 
ceptible dilution of brachycephaly observable in some localities, 
more particularly in Florida, and it might account for the notice- 
able broadening and heightening of the skull of these more 
northern contact tribes, which included particularly the Chica- 
saws, Creeks and Seminoles. 

If these views are correct then, also, the language of those of 
the Muskhogean tribes who were of northern derivation ought 
to show traces of the tribes of the North; and one could reason- 
ably doubt the isolation of the Timucuaan. 

There are nevertheless other possibilities. One of these is 
that the Gulf brachycephals represent the original old population 
of these regions, the oblong heads impinging upon them from the 
north and penetrating among them later and not accepting, but 
imparting to them their own language, the Muskhogean. In the 
latter case it would be the Natchez and Choctaws who ought to 
show traces of their ancestral tongue, which might not im- 
possibly in such a case be the Timucuaan, whose enigmatic 
occurrence in a part of the Florida population that we now 
know was not physically different from the rest, is hard to 
explain. Linguistics and archeology will doubtless sooner or 
later throw decisive light on these problems, which from the 
standpoint of physical anthropology are rather immaterial, for 
the results in this line remain the same. 

Still another view would be that the remarkable height of 
the skull which is the distinguishing feature of these southern 
populations, both of the oblong- and of the round-headed kind, 
is a local or regional development. In general these skulls are 



Anthropology of Florida 117 

all typically and purely Indian, but the accentuated height of 
at least the rounded skulls is not a generic Indian character and 
must have developed specially somewhere — why not in the 
Gulf states? The objections are that in the round-headed type, 
at least, the feature is universal in the large territory under 
consideration; that old neighboring people such as the brachy- 
cephals of Ohio or those of the Antilles, have not been so affected; 
and that there is not apparent in the great region occupied by 
these high-skulled people any environmental or other agency 
sufficiently peculiar or strong or universal to be possibly taken 
for a cause of such marked physical alteration. 

The whole matter shows once more and most strongly the 
need of our gaining a better knowledge of the anthropology of 
the eastern parts of Mexico. The head deformation of the Gulf 
brachycephals, their culture, various elements of their language, 
all seem to point to Mexico rather than elsewhere; but we have 
no records, especially no skeletal remains of the eastern Mexican 
population which would enable us to settle this question definitely 
one way or the other. The next most pressing need is that of 
more satisfactory data on the brachycephalic North America 
Indian population in general and in particular those of the 
Columbia basin and neighboring regions. Until we have such 
records we shall be hampered in our generalizations and our work 
cannot possibly reach the conclusiveness which we strive for. 

THE LONG BONES OF FLORIDA 

As the object of these studies is not so much a minute de- 
scription as a broad precision and identification of the remains of 
the Floridian aborigines, and as in addition our skeletal collections 
from the peninsula are far from adequate when it comes to many 
secondary parts of the skeleton, this section will be restricted to the 
four principal bones of the limbs which are the index of strength 
and stature, namely, the humerus, radius, femur and tibia. 



118 Ales Hrdlicka 



The specimens included in these examinations are from 
different parts of Florida, though mainly the west coast, and 
belonged essentially to the brachycephalic old population. They, 
as was the case with most of the skulls, show no appreciable 
differences as to locality and may therefore be legitimately 
grouped together. The tabulated results which follow are very 
instructive. They are also quite harmonious. 

STATURE OF THE OLD FLORIDA POPULATION 

The mean lengths of the four principal long bones, the 
humerus, radius, femur and tibia, fail to show any exceptional 
height for the Floridians. The various methods of estimating 
stature from the lengths of these bones, including the writer's 
own coefficients obtained on a large amount of dissecting room 
material, indicate collectively that the mean height of the mound 
and shell-heap Florida men was between 165 and 168 cm. 
(approximately 5 ft. 6 in.), while that of the women was between 
152 and 154 cm. (about 5 ft.) — which is very near the averages 
of our present mixed white population. The tallest Florida 
male represented in our collection reached not over 178 cm., or 
5 ft. 10 in. Thus ends the fallacy of the "giant-like" Floridians, 
inspired probably by their sturdy build, by the apprehension 
of the Spaniards who first came into contact with them, and by 
their comparing them with the smaller Indians they knew before 
as well as with themselves. 

THE HUMERUS 

The following two tables give the dimensions of the Florida 
humerus. The length of the female bones to that of the males 
is as 91 to 100, compared to 91.2 among North American Indians 
in general — a remarkable uniformity. Similar relations as to 
strength of shaft at middle are 85 in the Floridians, 91.3 among 



Anthropology of Florida 



119 



Florida — Humerus 




Length 


At Middle: 


D.Max. 


D. Min. 


Mean Diam. 


Index 




cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 




BOTH SIDES 


Males 


(18) 


(40) 


(40) 


(40) 


(40) 


Aver. 


32.3 


2.41 


1.S4 


2.13 


76.S 


Min. 


29.3 


2.1 


1.65 


1.90 


69.1 


Max. 


34.S 


2.95 


2.2 


2.57 


91.5 


Females 


(8) 


(45) 


(45) 


(45) 


(45) 


Aver. 


29.4 


2.10 


1.53 


1.81 


72.8 


Min. 


27.8 


1.7 


1.30 


1.5 


61.9 


Max. 


31.- 


2.4 


1.85 


2.1 


83.- 


RIGHT 


Males 


(13) 


(20) 


(20) 


(20) 


(20) 


Aver. 


32.72 


2.47 


1.86 


2.165 


75.1 


Females 


(5) 


(22) 


(22) 


(22) 


(22) 


Aver. 


29.32 


2.11 


1.49 


1.80 


70.9 


LEFT 


Males 


(5) 


(20) 


(20) 


(20) 


(20) 


AvtT. 


31.52 


2.3S 


1.83 


2.09 


77.9 


Females 


(3) 


(23) 


(23) 


(23) 


(23) 


Aver. 


29.47 


2.09 


1.56 


1.825 


74.6 



120 



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AxTHROPOLOGY OF FlORIDA 121 

Indians in general, 91.6 in American whites. The sexual differ- 
ence in the Florida humeri is here relatively large, which as 
will be seen later is due to an excess of strength of the bone 
in the males of the peninsula. The right bone is notably stronger 
than the left in breadth and somewhat stronger also in thickness 
in the males; the right is slightly the broader, but the left slightly 
thicker than the right in the females, pointing to marked differ- 
ences in occupation of the two sexes. 

The second table shows the Florida humeri to be slightly 
longer than the average in all our other available Indian series, 
and almost exactly like those of the actual mixed white popula- 
tion of the United States. In robustness they exceed in both 
dimensions and both sexes, but more particularly in the males, the 
general average of the Indians. In the males they, in fact, exceed 
slightly even the ordinary American whites, the females in the 
two groups being very nearly alike with the figures very slightly 
in favor of the working white woman. The mean strength of 
the male bones compares with that of North American Indians 
in general as 111.5, that of the female as 107.1 to 100. It was 
doubtless their strenuous life as boatmen and fishermen that 
accounts for this extraordinary strength of the arm of the male 
Floridian. 

In accord with its strength, the index of the shaft at middle 
is in both sexes higher — in other words, the humerus is less flat — 
than in the average Indian, but is still very perceptibly lower 
than in whites. This flatness of the humerus, together with that 
of the tibia and the subtrochanteric portion of the femur, is 
a generalized racial characteristic of the American Indian. 

Perforation of the Septum. — The 48 male humeri that could 
be examined for this feature give 22.1 per cent., the 30 female 
bones, 70 per cent, of perforations. This gives the mean of 46.5 
per cent., which is considerably higher than that in Indians in 



122 



Ales Hrdlicka 



general (30 per cent, in 2,985 bones) and of course very much 
higher than in other races (U. S. Whites 5.3 per cent., U. S. 
Negroes 19 per cent.). It is also the maximum for any tribe 
thus far examined except, which is interesting, the Indians of 
Arkansas and Louisiana (46 per cent, of perforations), who, as 
we have seen in connection with the skull, belonged to the same 
stock as the Floridians. 

More in detail the conditions found were as follows: 



FLORIDA HUMERI: PERFORATION OF SEPTUM 



Sex and Number of 
Specimens 


Perforations 

pp. 
(pin-point) 


1 
(small) 


2 
(medium) 


3 

(large) 


All 


Males (48) 


Per cent. 
2.1 


Per cent. 
14.6 


Per cent. 
4.2 


Per cent. 
2.1 


Per cent. 
23 






Females (30) 


3,3 


40.- 


23.3 


3.3 


70 



Supracondyloid Process. — This atavistic process occurring in 
about 1 per cent, of the arm bones of whites,' but very rare as a 
distinct process in Indians in general, forms no exception in this 
respect in the Floridians. It was present as a definite projection 
in none of the bones, the conditions being found as shown 
herewith: 

FLORIDA HUMERI: SUPRACONDYLOID PROCESS 



Sex and Number of 
Specimens 


Rough 
Trace in 
its Place 


Slight 
Ridge 


Moderate 
Ridge 


Pronounced 
Ridge 


Tubercle, 

Spine or 
Process 


Males (48) 

Females (41) 


Per cent. 
6.3 


Per cent. 

14.6 

2.4 


Per cent. 
4.2 


Per cent. 


Per cent . . 



THE RADIUS 

While there were in the collections examined numerous more 
or less imperfect Florida radii that showed well the general 



1 See Terry (R. J.). Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 1921, iv, 129. 



Anthropology of Florida 123 

characteristics of the bone — which did not present anything 
extraordinary — there were found but 14 specimens that could 
be measured for length. Eleven of these, identified as male, 
gave the mean length of 24.6 (23.2-25.6) cm., 3 identified as 
female, 23.7 (23.1-24.9) cm. All the bones seen were of good 
strength, with moderate curve. 

The radio-humeral index =j , based on the above 

measurements and on the mean length of the humeri is, in the 
males, 76. 2, which is very close to the general North American 
Indian average of 11 .1 . In mixed American whites (526 skele- 
tons) the writer obtained the average radiohumeral index of 
73.6. The Indian radius, and hence forearm, as that of the 
negro (R-H. I. in males 77.4), is relatively long — another racial 
feature of import that in advanced tasks of the anthropology of 
both the yellow-brown and the white race should prove of much 
assistance. 

THE FEMUR 

There were found 28 old Floridian femora that were suffi- 
ciently preserved to give the standard bicondylar length, but in 
128 bones it was possible to measure the thickness of the median 
part of the shaft. The length shows that the bones while not 
short, are of no great size. The female is to the male femur in 
this respect as 92.5 to 100 — practically the same as in other 
Indians (92.65), but less than in United States whites (93.-) or 
negroes (93.1). The right bone is on the average slightly the 
longer in both sexes. The range of variation is moderate. 

A reference to the accompanying tables shows the Florida 
femur to be perceptibly longer than the mean of all available 
tribes, but slightly shorter than that of the mixed present white 
American population. 



124 Ales Hrdlicka 



In strength the Florida femur shows well above the general 
Indian average in the males and slightly above also in the 
females. Exactly the same will be seen with the tibia. In both 
cases the excess of the female bone over the general Indian 
average is less than with the humerus, showing probably the 
effects of canoe life in the Floridians. Take away the canoe 
and the Florida woman would presumably be of the same 
strength, indicating the same activities, as her Indian sisters in 
general — not quite on the whole reaching the mean robustness of 
the working female white American. The Florida male excels 
in strength throughout, in upper as well as lower extremities. 
He was evidently both well nourished and very active as well on 
land as on water. 

The form of the Florida femur as expressed by the shaft index 

, . , ,, r I 1 (Diam. later, max. X 100) . 

at the middle or the bone — ttv z r^\ — is, as may 

(Diam. antero-post.) ' ^ 

be seen in the following tables, the same as in Indians at large, 

and is in all the tribes notably lower than in whites. This is due 

to the relatively as well as absolutely greater breadth (Diam. 

lat. max.) of the bone in the whites, while in the Indian and 

particularly the Florida males it is associated with a greater 

antero-posterior diameter — features constituting further racial 

differences of real value. 

^, . f ... (H X 100) . 

Ihe humero-temoral mdex ro- j— f tt^ is approxim- 

(Bicond. L. or h.) ^^ 

ately 73.1 in the males and 71.9 in the females; in 150 male and 

100 female Indians (500 femora) of other tribes the index was 

respectively 72.2 and 72.5; in 400 male and 145 female U. S. 

whites it was 72.5 and 71.6. The index evidently differs but 

little either tribally or racially, nevertheless it inclines to be 

slightly higher in the Indians, denoting a slightly shorter relative 

length of the femur. 



Anthropology of Florida 



125 



Florida — Femur 




Length ■ 
Bicondylar 


At Middle: 


D. A-P. Max. i 


D. Later. ■ 


Mean Diam. 1 


Index 




cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 




BOTH SIDES 


Males 


(20) 


(86) 


(86) 


(86) i 


(86) 


Aver. 


44.2 


3.09 


2.72 


2.91 


87.9 


Min. 


41.8 


2.7 


2.3 


2.55 


74.3 


Max. 


47.9 


3.5 


3.3 


3.3 


100.- 


Females 


(8) 


(36) 


(36) 


(36) 


(36) 


Aver. 


40.9 


2.61 


2.36 


2.49 


90.3 


Min. 


38.3 


2.4 


2.1 


2.27 


78.6 


Max. 


44.8 


2.9 


2.6 


2.65 


100.- 


RTGHT 


Males 


(8) 


(42) 


(42) 


(42) 


(42) 


Aver. 


44.3 


3.11 


2.72 


2.92 


87.5 


Females 


(4) 


(19) 


(19) 


(19) 


(19) 


Aver. 


41.3 


2.6S 


2.32 


2.48 


87.7 


LEFT 


Males 


(12) 


(44) 


(44) 


(44) 


(44) 


Aver. 


44.1 


3.08 


2.72 


2.90 


88.3 


Females 


(4) 


(17) 


(17) 


(17) 


(17) 


Aver. 


40.6 


2.57 


2.40 


2.49 


93J 



126 



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Anthropology of Florida 127 



THE TIBIA 

In agreement with the humeri and femora, the Florida tibiae 
show but medium length. The female to male average is as 91.3 
to 100; in 1 130 tibiae of other tribes it averages 91.8; in 2000 bones 
of mixed U. S. whites 92.7 to 100. The right Floridian tibia ap- 
pears on the average as slightly the longer in both sexes, which is 
rather exceptional, in many Indian as well as other racial groups 
the left tibia, in one of the sexes at least, being the longer. 

Tu -u- r 1 • J (T X 100) , o, • , 

Ihe tibio-femoral mdex (gicotid L of F ) ^^^^^^ 83.- m the 

males and 81.9 in the females, which is about two points less 
than in the Indians at large, though still slightly higher than in 
whites (male whites 82.1, females 81.5). It is interesting to 
note that there should be so much less racial difference between 
the leg and the thigh than between the forearm and arm. 

The strength of the bone is marked. It is equal on the two 
sides in the males, slightly greater on the left in the females. 
The average male bone is in this respect to the average female 
bone as 83.3 to 100, which is approximately two points lower 
than the general average of other tribes (7 tribes = 85.5), 
showing the male Florida tibia to be exceptionally strong, which 
stands in accord to what was observed with the rest of the long 
bones from the peninsula. 

Comparison with other tribes as given in the second table 
below shows that, while the female Florida tibia is just about or 
only very slightly above the general Indian average, and with 
this slightly below that of the working classes of mixed U. S. 
whites, the male bone is well above the average of the Indian as 
well as that of the common male whites. The Florida males, 
to sum up, may therefore well be characterized as decidedly 
robust. They were not giants in stature, but were strong in 
frame and musculature. It can readily be understood that they 
had the reputation of fierce fighters. 



128 



Ales Hrdlicka 



Florida — Tibia 




Length 
(Intern. Agr.) 


At Middle: 


D.-A.-P. Max. 


D. Lateral 


Mean Diam. 


Index 




cm. 


cm. 


cm. 


cm. 




BOTH SIDES 


Males 


(12) 


(56) 


(56) 


(56) 


(56) 


Aver. 


36.7 


3J7 


2.2S 


2.81 


i 
66.6 


Mln. 


35.8 


2.9 


1.85 


2.45 


56.1 


Max. 


37.8 


3.8 


2.6 


3.1 


80.- 


Females 


(10) 


(55) 


(55) 


(55) 


(55) 


Aver. 


33.S 


2.77 


1.92 


2.34 


69.2 


Min. 


30.4 


2.35 


1.6 


l.i^il 


55.- 


Max. 


36.5 


3.3 


2.25 


2.12 


78.6 


RIGHT 


Males 


(5) 


(25) 


(25) 


(25) 


(25) 


Aver. 


35.14 


3.35 


2.26 


2.81 


67.4 


Females 


(5) 


(22) 


(22) 


(22) 


(22) 


Aver. 


33.6 


2.73 


1.92 


2.32 


70.1 


LEFT 


Males 


(7) 


(31) 


(31) 


(31) 


(31) 


Aver. 


36.96 


3.39 


2.23 


2.81 


65.7 


Females 


(5) 


(33) 


(33) 


(33) 


(33) 


Aver. 


33.92 


2.81 


1.92 


2.37 




68.4 

1 



Anthropology of Florida 



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130 Ales Hrdlicka 



In observing the separate measurements of the shaft of the 
tibia it will be noted that the plus development of the Florida 
bone in relation to that of other Indians is in both dimensions, 
in relation to whites only in the antero-posterior diameter. This 
means a bone giving very nearly the same index of shaft or same 
degree of platycnaemy as that of Indians in general, but a very 
perceptibly lower index or higher platycnaemy than that of 
whites. An antero-posteriorly deeper and therefore relatively 
flatter femur, an antero-posteriorly larger and therefore also 
relatively flatter tibia — such in comparison with whites (and 
especially negroes) are the essential Indian and equally Floridian 
characteristics in these important parts of the skeleton. 

SUMMARY OF THE OBSERVATIONS ON THE SKELETAL REMAINS 
FROM THE FLORIDA MOUNDS AND SHELL HEAPS 

1. The skeletal remains from the mounds and shell heaps of 
Florida show considerable uniformity; yet it is possible to dis- 
tinguish two types — one prevalent, fundamental, characterized 
by above-average massiveness, brachycephaly, and high vault 
of skull, high, fairly broad face, high, moderately broad nose, 
and high, stout lower jaw, with robust to heavy, good-sized 
skeleton; and another, less numerous and in the main evidently 
more recent type, with head form subdolicho- to slightly 
brachycephalic, also high-vaulted, and with facial and skeletal 
features related to but somewhat less accentuated than those 
of the first type. 

2. The first type not seldom exists pure, the second is most 
frequently admixed with the first. There are no traces of any 
other type in the territory. 

3. The brachycephals extended in the main over the northern 
two-thirds of the peninsula, the oblong heads being more frequent 
in the southern third and along parts of the east coast. The 
Timucuas of northern Florida, the St. John's River Indians, and 



Anthropology of Florida 131 

the Caloosas of the west coast or at least those from Tampa 
Bay to Charlotte Harbor, were all physically the same people. 

4. The brachycephals practiced the fron to-occipital artificial 
deformation of the head; the oblong heads, except where admixed 
with the brachycephals, practiced no deformation. 

5. The physical affinities of the brachycephalic population of 
Florida lie not to the south, but to the immediate north and 
west. They are clearly identifiable as an extension of a large 
block of people of the same type who occupied at and before the 
time of discovery large portions of the states of Arkansas, 
Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia and prob- 
ably also South Carolina. 

6. This stock has no affinities towards the northeast or north, 
and must have been derived from somewhere in the northwest, 
west or southwest. For the present, indications would seem to 
favor eastern Mexico. 

7. Since discovery the type, though robust, and strong in 
numbers, has become very largely extinct except in the mixed 
survivors of the Choctaw. Tribes that may be offshoots of this 
body, though now speaking northern languages, are one part 
of the Osage and the Winnebago. 

8. The more oblong-headed elements of Florida may be 
safely identified with the Seminoles and other Muskhogean 
tribes of northern derivation. 

9. The study of the long bones of the Florida brachycephals 
shows an exceptional robustness and strength for the males; 
otherwise they closely agree in every respect with the means of 
North American Indians in general. 

10. Estimations of stature from the long bones show the same 
height as the present mixed (not Old American) United States 
population. 



132 Ales Hrdlicka 



In order further to clear the anthropological problem of the 
Floridian peninsula and of the south in general, it is highly de- 
sirable that more skeletal material be collected from the eastern 
as well as the western coast regions, from the latitude of Lake 
Okechobee and Charlotte Harbour southward. More material 
of the same nature is also needed from the Carolinas, northern 
Georgia and western Texas. And an effort should be made to 
locate and make anthropometric observations on the possible re- 
maining full-bloods of the Yamasees, Uchees, Creeks, Chicka- 
saws and other tribes that once belonged to the general region 
under consideration. With this comparatively modest amount 
of additional work we shall have covered a large and important 
part of the northern continent, and established a firm founda- 
tion for future comparison and deductions. 



I 



Detailed Measurements 



Anthropology of Florida 



135 



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St. Augustine 
New Sbjyrna 

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South and Southeas 


No. 

1,794 
1,808 
1,787 
1,795 
1,783 
1,789 
1,790 

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242,666 
242,685 
242,686 
242,627 
242,626 
242,623 
242,628 

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228,452 
228,336 
228.337 

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A. N. S. P. 

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East Coast 
U. S. N. M. 


South and 
Southeast 
Florida 
U. S. N. M. 



INDEX 

A 

PAGE 

Addison's Place, Key 12, 13, 24, 26 

Alabama, Crania of Ill, 112 

Alabamois Indians 114 

Allen, Harrison 76 

Allens River 34 

Arkansas, Crania of Ill, 112 

Antiquity 65 

Anthropology of Florida, Comparative 109 

B 

Barfield, J. M 22, 32 

Barnes River 40 

Blue Hill 8 

Brinton, Daniel G : 58, 61, 78 

Brooks, W. K 86 

Brown's Place 36 

Buttonwood Key 31 

C 

Caloosahatchee River 14, 52 

Caloosas 50, 51, 58 

Canals, Aboriginal 13, 20, 25, 35 

Cannon, James E 15 

Cape Romaine 24 

Cape Sable 6, 10, 11, 12,47 

Carolina, South, Crania of Ill, 112 

Caximbas 8, 22, 26 

Charlotte Harbor 10, 14, 26, 48, 50, 51 

Chatham River, Bend 10, 41 

Chevalier Place 42, 53 

Chokaloskee Island 6,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 35 



C PAGE 

Choctaws 114, 116 

Clam Pass 19 

Comparative (the Skull) 113 

Coon Key 8 

Crania, Eastern and Southeastern 115 

Crania, Floridian 72 et seq. 

Deformation 83 

Massiveness 85 

Disease 87 

Unity of Type 88 

Numbers Examined 89 

Descriptive Features of 90 

Measurements of 91 

Facial Proportions 99 

Crawford Place, Key 12, 20 

Creeks 58,59,60, 114 

CusHiNG, Frank Hamilton 7, 16, 19, 77, 79, 83 

Cushing's Point 21, 26, 36 

D 

Deeses' Place 32 

Deformation of Head 83 

Descriptive Features (of Skull) 90 

Disease in Florida Skulls and Bones 87 

Dismal Key 8, 13, 31 

Dwon's Place 33 

E 

East Coast 52 

EcKER, A. 75 

Ellis, J. B 15, 33, 40, 47 

Ellis Place 33 

EsTERO Keys 16 

F 

Facial Proportions (of Skull) 99 

Fakahatchee 8, 12, 13, 33 

Femur, The 129 

Ferguson River 34 



F PAGE 

Flamingo 47 

Florida, Anthropology of. 2, Peopling of 70 

Peopling and Tribes of 57 

Removal of to Cuba 7..... 61 

Numbers 66 

Antiquity of 68 

Stature of — Old Florida Population 118 

Florida Indians, Physical Characteristics of 70, 71 

Crania of 73, 83, 99, 101, 111, 112 

Other Skeletal Remains of 117 

Fort Myers 19, 52 

Indian Remains from 16 

Former Contributions 72 et seq. 

G 

Gandesse's Place 32 

General Impressions 48 

Georgia, Crania of Ill, 112 

Gomez Key 8, 33 

GooDLAND Point 8, 13, 24, 26 

Gopher Key 42 

Gordon Pass 20 

H 

Halfway Creek 34 

Hamilton, Eugene 44 

Hamilton, R. E IS, 41, 44 

Harney River 47 

Head Deformation 83 

Hichiti 59 

Holmes, W. H Foreword 

HoRR, J. F 22 

Horr's Island 8, 22 

Howard Wood Creel 41 

Hrdlicka, a 16, 83 

Humerus, The 118 

I 

Indian Remains 16 

Insects 27, 43, 46 



J 

PAGE 

Jaws, Lower 102 

Exceptional 105, 108 

K 

Key Marco 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 21, 26, 27, 50 

Indian Remains from 16 

Southward 27 

KiNziE, Captain 16 



Labelle 52 

Little Marco Island, Key 7, 12 

Long Bones, the 117, 118, 122, 123, 127 

Lopez Place 40 

Lossman's River 15, 44, 46, 47 

Key 10, 11, 12, 13, 45 

Louisiana, Crania of Ill, 112 

Lower Jaws, Floridian 102 

Exceptional 105, 108 

M 

Marco Key, Pass, Village 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 21, 26, 27, 50 

Massiveness of Skulls From Florida 85 

McIlvaine Key, Creek 12, 24 

McKinnie's Place 40 

Measurements of Skull 91 

Detailed 135 

Miller's Point 42 

Mississippi, Crania of Ill, 116 

Mooney, James 58 

Moore, Clarence B 7, 10, 12, 13, IS, 16, 19, 23, 24, 26, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 

36, 41, 45, 47, 83. 

Moore Haven 52 

Mound Key 16, 26 

Mounds 28, 48 

Muskhogean Tribes 114, 116 

N 

Naples 12, 19, 26 

Natchez 114, 116 



N 

PAGE 

National Reservations, Sites for 30 

New Observations 83 

New River 41 

O 

Okechobee, Lake 14, 50, 52 

Onion Key 46 

Otis, George A 75 



Peopling of Florida 56 

Physical Characteristics of Floridians 70 

Physical Anthropology 71 

Pumpkin Key 32 

PuNTA Rasa 16 

Putnam, F. W 76 

R 

Radius, The 122 

Records, Physical Characteristics of Floridians in 70 

Robert's Creek 40 

Roger's River 47 

Royal Palm Hammock 45 

Russell's Key, Island 9, 12, 13, 34 



Sandfly Pass 9, 34, 36 

Sand Mounds 28 

Seminole Crania 113, 114 

Seminoles, The 14, 53, 54, 61, 64, 77, 113, 114, 116 

Shell Heaps, Mounds 13, 14, 27, 28, 48, 69 

Shell Key 31 

Skulls, the Floridian 83, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 97, 109 

Smallwood, C. S 15, 36 

St. John's River 11, 51, 58 

St. Mary's Island 44 

Stature 118 

Storter, George W 15, 34, 40, 47, 53 

Summary : 130 

Syphilis, in Florida 87 



T 

PAGE 

Ten Thousand Islands Region S, 48 

Tennessee, Crania of Ill, 112 

Thompson Place 33 

Tibia, The 127 

TiMucuA 59,60, 118 

Tribes of Florida 57, 59 

Turner's River 10, 13, 14, 36 

Type, Unity of 88 

U 

Uchees 62 

Unity of Type 88 

W 

Watson's Place 10,41 

Weeks Place 20, 26 

West Pass 36 

White Water Bay 47 

Whitney River 29 

Wiggins Key 9 

Wyman, Jeffries 72 

Y 

Yamasee 59, 61 



LIST OF SUSTAINING MEMBERS 

OF THE 

FLORIDA STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY 

INSTITUTIONS 

AVERY LIBRARY AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY 

New Port Ritchie, Florida 
BARTOW PUBLIC LIBRARY 

Bartow, Florida 
BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY 

Boston, Massachusetts 
CLEMENTS LIBRARY OF AMERICAN HISTORY 

University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 

CHICAGO PUBLIC LIBRARY 

Chicago, Illinois 
DENISON UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 

Granville, Ohio 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 

Cambridge, Massachusetts 
JACKSONVILLE PUBLIC LIBRARY 

Jacksonville, Florida 
JOHN B. STETSON UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 

Deland, Florida 
MINNESOTA HISTORICAL SOCIETY 

Minneapolis, Minnesota 
NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY 

New York City 
NEW SMYRNA FREE LIBRARY 

New Smyrna, Florida 
PALATKA PUBLIC LIBRARY 

Palatka, Florida 
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 

Princeton, New Jersey 

STATE COLLEGE FOR WOMEN LIBRARY 

Tallahassee, Florida 
SUPREME COURT OF FLORIDA LIBRARY 

Tallahassee, Florida 
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARY 

Gainesville, Florida 
VIRGINIA STATE LIBRARY 

Richmond, Virginia 
WEST PALM BEACH PUBLIC LIBRARY 

West Palm Beach, Florida 
YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 

New Haven, Connecticut 

INDIVIDUALS 

ANDERSON, ANDREW, St. Augustine, Florida 
BARRELL, EDWARD P., Deland, Florida 
BEAVER, F. P., Dayton, Ohio 
BENTLEY, FRANK, Tampa, Florida 
BIGLER, B. B., St. Augustine, Florida 



A 



R^ 3.5 



BOND, ELIZABETH G., Deland, Florida 
BOND, MRS. ROBERT M., Deland, Florida 
BRYAN, WILLIAM JENNINGS, Miami, Florida 
BURT, FRED N., DeLeon Springs, Flordia 
CHAPIN, GEORGE M., Jacksonville, Florida 
COLTON, LITCHFIELD, Deland, Florida 
CONNOR, JEANNETTE THURBER, New York City 
CONNOR, WASHINGTON E., New York City 
CONNOR, Wayne E., New Smyrna, Florida 
CONRAD, CARRIE F., Deland, Florida 
DEERING, CHARLES, Miami, Florida 
DEERING, JAMES, Miami, Florida 
DEWHURST, W. W., St. Augustine, Florida 
FARRISS, CHARLES S., Deland, Florida 
FEE, WILLIAM I., Ft. Pierce, Florida 
FISHER, GEORGIA GERTRUDE, Deland, Florida 
FLETCHER, DUNCAN U., Washington, D. C. 
FOSTER, WARD G., New York City 
GARWOOD, H. C, Deland, Florida 
GILLETT, D. C, Tampa, Florida 
GORDIS, W. S., Deland, Florida 
GREENE, JAMES A., Winter Haven, Florida 
HULLEY, LINCOLN, Deland, Florida 
JENNINGS, MRS. W. S., Jacksonville, Florida 
JORDAN, SAMUEL D., Deland, Florida 
KAY, WILLIAM E., Jacksonville, Florida 
KNIGHT, PETER O., Tampa, Florida 
LAMAR, G. B., St. Augustine, Florida 
MICKLE, W. Y., Deland, Florida 
OSBORNE, F. R., Deland, Florida 
PAUL, JOHN J., Watertown, Florida 
PERKINS, J. W., Deland, Florida 

RASCO, R. A., Deland, Florida 

REESE, J. H., Miami, Florida 

REYNOLDS, CHARLES B., New York City 

REYNOLDS, E. H., St. Augustine, Florida 

REYNOLDS, E. S., Washington, D. C. 

SANCHEZ, EUGENE M., Jacksonville, Florida 

SAUL, MAURICE B., Moylan, Pennsylvania 

SHUTTS, FRANK B., Miami, Florida 

STANLEY, MRS. M. F., New Smyrna, Florida 

STETSON, JOHN B., JR., Elkins Park, Pennsylvania 

STOVER, IRVING C, Deland, Florida 

THURBER, JEANNETTE M., New York City 

WALL, PERRY G., Tampa, Florida 

WATSON, W. H., Pensacola, Florida 

WILKINSON, E. G., Naples, Florida 

WILMSHURST, HENRY J., Deland, Florida 

WINSHIP, GEORGE PARKER, Cambridge, Massachusetts 

WRIGHT, SILAS B., Deland, Florida 

YONGE, P. K., Pensacola, Florida 






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PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGIES, LP, 
1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Crantterry Township, PA 16066 
f7Z4) 779.21 1 1 




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